Lesson 3: Sociological and Subcultural Perspectives on Race and Crime (Printer Friendly Format)

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Introduction

Unlike the last lesson, there is less controversy surrounding the perspectives covered in this lesson. Sociological perspectives examine the assortment of sociological factors (e.g., poverty, community conditions, etc.) that, for some time, have been used to contextualize racial and ethnic disparities in criminal justice. The lesson reviews some of the earliest such theories and also some of the more well-known theories such as social disorganization, strain theory, and general strain theory. Subcultural theory, which has its roots in the study of youth and gangs, is also discussed in this lesson. Besides a review of the foundations of the theory, the lesson examines the history and current state of the subcultural theory. This review includes a discussion of well known subcultrual theories such as the subculture of violence theory, and the more recent, "code of the streets" perspective.   

Objectives

By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

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Road Map

To Read

Below are the lesson readings. Complete these before progressing to the author's commentary.


View Gangs of New York (Part I, video length: 1:25:12); Gangs of New York (Part II, video length: 28:10)

(Click on the image to view, this will open a new window)

Note: You must have Quicktime installed on your computer. If you need to download, go to http://www.apple.com/quicktime.

To Do

Complete the following lesson assignments:

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Sociological Perspectives on Race and Crime

Many of you have heard that Lomborso is the father of criminology. Well, I must tell you, I don’t agree with this characterization. Lombroso is closer to being the father of positivist criminology, which is an approach in which scholars believe that sociological, biological, psychological, or other factors contribute to criminal behavior. However, even this isn't the case. As noted in previous lesson, Lomboroso turned to physical and biological factors to explain criminal behavior. But before Lombroso's rise to prominence, there were other European scholars who examined crime from a sociological perspective. Most notably, Adolphe Quetelet the Belgian statistician who used sociological factors when considering crime. Quetelet, along with A.M. Guerry, founded the Cartographic School, which explained crime by examining sociological factors such as poverty, age, etc.  However, Lombroso gets the credit for being the "Father of Criminology." One wonders why? Nonetheless, the important issue here is that sociological perspectives have a long history in the field of criminology.  And, as you can imagine, sociological perspectives also have a long history of contextualizing disparities related to race and crime.

Du Bois' Early Work on Race and Crime

One of the first sociological criminologists to investigate race and crime was W.E.B. Du Bois, the first African American to receive a Ph.D. from Harvard University (in history).  Over his long career, Du Bois had a particular interest in crime and justice. But, after the publication of his work, The Philadelphia Negro (1899), which remains of interest to scholars today, Du Bois's stature as a leading scholar in the area of race and crime was secure. Based on a comprehensive examination of Philadelphia's notorious seventh ward (see the map), Du Bois's research noted that Blacks who had migrated from the South were placed at a disadvantage in the city. They were unfamiliar with the urban environment, there were no jobs awaiting them, they had difficulty securing housing, and they faced discrimination at every step. Du Bois connected all these things with the over representation of Blacks in arrest and prison statistics. In the late 1800s, very few other theorists looked to these sociological factors to explain crime among the African American population. After Du Bois’s important work, the sociological perspective was most notably furthered by the highly acclaimed "Chicago School of criminology."

Du Bois on Crime and Justice (click the image for the encharged ones)

The "Chicago School" and Social Disorganization

Often referred to as the standard bearer for sociological perspectives, the University of Chicago's Sociology Department was pioneering on a number of fronts. First, it was the first sociology department in the United States (founded in 1892). Second, from the 1920s to the 1940s, the Department was able to assemble an envious cadre of scholars to further the development of sociology as a discipline in America. Most notably, the recruitment of Ernest W. Burgess and Robert Park, brought together two scholars who worked together to formulate the ecological perspective and the concentric zone theory. I know, you hear about this theory in nearly every class, but it particularly important for understanding crime among racial and ethnic groups.

Urban Area (click the image for the encharged one)

As you recall, the theory postulates that most of the crime in a city will occur where most of the activity occurs. What activity? Typically such areas are hotbeds for new immigrants, various vice activities (e.g., drug dealing, prostitution, etc.), there is quite a bit of movement in and out of the area, and the area is typically impoverished and rundown.  All of these conditions produce what is called social disorganization, and often results in high levels of crime. In short, the further you move away from socially disorganized areas, the less crime is likely to be present in that area.

The theory was tested by researchers Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay who were researchers at an institute and the University of Chicago. To test the theory, they used maps to chart the juvenile delinquency in Chicago. After doing this for an extended period of time the Chicago researchers found support for the basic premise of the theory: community location and conditions matter. In the process of finding support for social disorganization and the ecological approach, they also stumbled onto another critical finding. Crime was high in the zone of transition-irrespective of which racial or ethnic group resided there. Hence, biological arguments fell on their face when the data showed that, over time, all groups had high crime rates in the zone of transition. It is notable that Jews and Asians had high rates as well, but their rates tended to be lower than other groups. Numerous studies in the Chicago tradition were done by graduate students at the University of Chicago. In most instances, the theory was supported.

Social Disorganization in Recent Times

For several decades, social dosprganization remained the standard sociological approach. After the decline of the Chicago School, it was not until the 1980s that scholars again started to consider if social disorganization remained valid. The work of Robert Sampson and William Julius Wilson, led the resurgence of the perspective. Sampson conducted several studies in the U.S. and abroad that supported the resiliency of the perspective for contextualizing social problems in urban areas. Wilson theorized that the changing nature of inner cities was the product of the loss of industrial opportunities that were once the foundation of inner city residents achieving middle-class status. With the abandonment of the inner cities by industry and middle-class residents fleeing the urban decline, many urban areas became populated by what he referred to as "the Truly Disadvantaged." These residents no longer had the benefit of having pockets of middle-class "social buffers" or role models who exemplified the fruits of hard work and perseverance. This situation led to communities with large numbers of "socially isolated" individuals or, put another way, those people who had minimal contact with people who have mainstream ideals. Combined, Sampson and Wilson's (1995) version of social disorganization became the standard approach used when examining inner city communities. Sampson and colleagues (2006) have since updated the theory to account for immigration issues and the varying cultural issues that often arise in urban areas. 

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Strain Theories

Classic Strain Theory

Besides social disorganization, during the 1930s, another criminological perspective rose to prominence among sociologists and criminologists. The theory was strain/anomie theory the theorist was Robert Merton. In its most basic form, the theory states that most people in society strive for the American dream. Thus, if they are unable to achieve that dream through legitimate means, they are likely to seek illegitimate means to reach their dreams. This supposition would obviously apply to all racial and ethnic groups, but Merton recognized the special circumstances of American Blacks. He realized that, because of racial discrimination, they could only go so far in the American social structure. In short, they were more likely to encounter strain and engage in criminal activities as a form of survival than White ethnic groups. In time, researchers would put Merton's theory to the test and find support for its basic propositions.

General Strain Theory

In the early 1980s, Robert Agnew reformulated strain theory because there was persistent criticism that Merton's theory was best suited to explain property crime but not personal and more violent crimes. Agnew's reformulation, referred to as general strain theory, argues that strain can come in many forms. For example, when someone has been abused as a child, this creates strain (or a stressor) that can be detrimental to the development of the victim. Other strains might include: one's parents divorcing (loss of positive stimuli); exposure to violence; exposure to environmental contaminants; physical punishment; and or other types of negative physical or psychological situations. Because racial and ethnic minorities are likely to be exposed to some of these strains, the theory has been used by some theorists to contextualize disparities related to race and crime. In fact, some researchers consider exposure to discrimination as a strain. Additional research has also pointed to social support or religion as a potential mediator to strain. Hence, those persons who have considerable support in the form of friends and family or through religious practices are less likely to be fully impacted by stressors.  

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Subcultural Perspectives on Race and Crime

As you likely learned in your theory class, subcultural perspectives view crime as a product of subcultures that emerge out of mainstream society. Where do such subcultures come from? They can actually originate from a variety of sources. First, they can arise out of dire social circumstances. So, if a new immigrant group is unable to find work, they might join a subculture we refer to as a gang. A gang will provide them with friendship, activities (both licit and illicit), and a means to survive, which, again, could involve criminal activities. As lesson one noted, this is the history of America!  Every new group has had to form some formal or informal activity to adjust to the initial hardships of life in American. Whether these activities are referred to as subcultures, gangs, or organizations, is a matter of who you ask. Nonetheless, scholars have made such distinctions.

Early Subcultural Perspectives

In the 1950s, theorists, such as Walter Miller noted that there was a distinct street culture in Boston. He referred to this as focal concerns or those things that were valued by those adhering to street culture. Among these focal concerns included "toughness," "excitement," and "smartness." Thus, being tough, being a thrill seeker, and having street smarts were valued among youth. Hmm..little has changed! Growing up in Brooklyn, all the "cool" people in my neighborhood exuded these traits. In fact, if you didn't fit this mode, you were likely the one who would be preyed on by these "cool" people. Interestingly, one of the local gangs, the Jolly Stompers, was well known for their criminal activities and once recruited a gang member named--Mike Tyson.

Following Miller's work, other theorists formulates additional subcultural theories. Cloward and Ohlin produced the work Delinquency and Opportunity (1960), which provided additional clarity in terms of gang formation and activity. They felt that gangs could be divided into three types: criminal, conflict, and retreatist gangs. Criminal gangs were those that primarily focused on making money through illegitimate means. Conflict gangs were those that were primarily focused on maintaining their status as "tough guys." To do so, they typically had to engage in violent encounters. Retreatist gangs were those that were unsuccessful at illegitimate enterprises and equally unsuccessful at being "tough guys." As a result, they "retreat" into drug use. Cloward and Ohlin (1960) noted that racial and ethnic minorities were involved in all of these types of gangs. However, they noted that, even among those engaged in illegitimate enterprises, Blacks in particular were in lower level positions.  They actually predicted that, in time, Blacks would make a push toward controlling certain illegitimate activities in inner cities. Further, such a push would lead to considerable violence in inner cities.  Considering the turbulence that emerged in numerous inner city areas during the 1960s, it is likely that, to some extent, this struggle contributed to the turbulence of the era.

Wolfgang and Feracutti (1967) formulated the subculture of violence theory, which is likely one of the more popular of the subcultural approaches. Based largely on Wolfgang's pioneering work on homicides in Philadelphia, the authors argued that, among inner-city residents, even minor insults turned into situations that gave rise to violence. So what was the cause of this violence?  According to the authors, within these environments, a subculture develops that sees violence as an acceptable means to resolve issues. To date, there has been mixed support for the perspective. 

Subcultural Theory in Recent Times

Today, the most popular subcultural theory is the "code of the streets" perspective. The theory, which draws from subcultural theories of the past, is based on decades of ethnographic research in Philadelphia. Formulated by Elijah Anderson, who taught at the University of Pennsylvania for more than twenty years (now at Yale University), the perspective notes that given the structural decline described by the "Truly Disadvantaged" thesis reviewed earlier in the lesson, inner cities have become even more tumultuous places. In fact, Anderson found that in Philadelphia the search for "respect" or "juice" ruled.  He found that there were two types of families living in Philadelphia: "street families" and "decent families." Street families live by a code of respect that should not be violated. The code regulates the way you should look at people or how you react to them. Done wrong, these actions can produce conflicts that escalate into fights, or in the worst case scenario, murder. In such an environment, even the most trivial slights turn into major issues. On the other side, there were these "decent" families seeking to raise their children in the "right way" and eke out a living the best way they can through legitimate avenues. The following video provides some additional information on Anderson's work: "Code of the streets" perspective.

Watch video: Code of the Street (it will open a new window)

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Lesson Activity

There are two discussion forums for this lesson. After you have posted your answers to the questions, don't forget to read and respond to the rest of the class postings.

Discussion



Watch video: Anthropologist Helen Fisher, psychologist Jeff Gardere and Dr. Laura Schlessinger discuss the act of infidelity (it will open a new window)

     


View Gangs of New York (Part I, video length: 1:25:12); Gangs of New York (Part II, video length: 28:10)

(Click on the image to view, this will open a new window)

Note: You must have Quicktime installed on your computer. If you need to download, go to http://www.apple.com/quicktime.

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Summary

This lesson examined two staple criminological perspectives how they help contextualize race and crime. Sociological perspectives were among the earliest positivist approaches. Given the difficult social circumstances racial and ethnic minorities have faced, sociological perspectives have sought to show how such conditions contribute to racial disparities in race and crime. Moreover, early theorists such as Du Bois also noted how discrimination also might play a role in the over representation of Blacks in the criminal justice system. Subcultural theory argued that in some communities the formation of criminogenic subcultures contributes to the normalization of violence. More recently, the code of the streets thesis has discussed how social conditions have created a subculture that is founded on respect. Both perspectives provide additional insights into racial and ethnic disparities in arrest and victimization statistics. The next lesson turns to two additional theories which are often used as the foundation for understanding race and crime, the labeling and conflict perspectives.