EDPSY421:

Introduction to the Second Half of This Course

In the first half of the course, we covered three discrete classes of theory:

1. Behaviorism,
2. Social Cognitive, and
3. Constructivism.

The content is organized differently in this second half of the course. The content we cover falls under the single heading of cognitive theories of learning. Not all cognitive theorists are the same, however, as different theories tend to emphasize different components, or dimensions, of cognition. The components we will cover are:

• knowledge
• strategies
• metacognition
• motivation

As you can see from the syllabus, these components are each covered within separate units. But, to understand how cognitive theories explain learning, you have to understand each of these components in relation to one another. Figure 4.1 shows a graphic depiction of that relationship. It is a depiction of how the topics of knowledge, strategies, metacognition, and motivation are related to one another. Although we can cover each of these topics independently, they all act to influence one another. High quality learning requires the interaction of all of these parts.

 

As you can see, each component is in its own box; but, the double-sided arrows indicate that each component interacts with and is influenced by other components. For instance, the two-sided arrow running between knowledge and strategies indicates that knowledge influences strategy use and strategy use influences knowledge. I refer to this as a generic model of self-regulated learning. It captures self-regulated learning because these components explain how a learner is able to control and direct their own learning activities. It is generic because this model does not adhere to any one theorist’s specific model of self-regulation. Rather, our generic model covers the major components that are included in most cognitively-based, self-regulated learning models and allows us to think about how these components are related to one another.

To think about the importance of understanding the interactive relationships between components of self-regulation consider the following. First, we will learn that a student’s ability to remember and use knowledge is influenced by how that declarative knowledge is organized in the learner’s head. Later, when we cover strategies, you will see that a learning strategy can be applied to new knowledge that is learned. To really understand these points, you will need to understand that the strategy a learner uses influences how that declarative knowledge is ultimately organized. If you do not think about these components in this interactive relationship, you will miss much of what is important in this second half of the course.

We will begin this second half by covering the information processing system. Figure 4.2 provides you with a graphic depiction of that system, which you can use to organize your knowledge throughout this section. Your textbook describes three different models of memory (i.e., information processing):

1. two-store
2. levels of processing
3. activation

 

Figure 4.2 is a depiction of the information processing system (IPS). This depiction uses a series of boxes and arrows; boxes indicate structures of IPS while arrows indicate processes. The first box, which appears on the left-most side of the figure, indicates the Sensory Register. Two arrows come out of the Sensory Register. One arrow points down and out of the system. This arrow indicates decay (information that is lost from the system). The second arrow runs between the Sensory Register and Working Memory (the next box). This arrow is labeled attention and indicates that information that a learner attends to can be brought from the Sensory Register to Working Memory (from the environment to awareness). The next box is Working Memory. Working Memory also has an arrow coming out and pointing downward. Consistent with Sensory Register, this box is labeled decay and indicates information that is lost from the system. Another arrow points out of Working Memory heading toward the next box, Long Term Memory. This arrow is labeled storage and indicates information being transferred from Working Memory to be stored in Long Term Memory. The Long Term Memory box is next one shown. This box has an arrow pointing from it back toward Working Memory. This arrow is labeled retrieval and indicates information that is being brought from storage in Long Term Memory into awareness in Working Memory. Above the Long Term Memory box is a box labeled Metacognition. This box is located at the top of Long Term Memory, but inside of it, to indicate that Metacognitive knowledge is stored in Long Term Memory but has a special function in learning. There is also an arrow running form Metacognition to Working Memory to indicate that Metacognitive knowledge can also be retrieved into Working Memory. Finally, there is a three-dimensional triangle that begins in Long Term Memory (the top point) and ends in Working Memory. On the Long Term Memory side, the triangle is labeled inactive; on the Working Memory side, it is labeled active. This triangle indicates that knowledge is inactive when stored in Long Term Memory and active once it is in Working Memory.

Figure 4.2 depicts a model that is consistent with the two-store model and this is the base model that we will use for understanding how information processing works. You also need to realize though that we will incorporate principles from the alternative models as well. For instance, even though we use working memory and long term memory as our base model, in this class we will also take the position that the depth of processing matters and that knowledge held in memory changes activation states. Note, for example, the slight difference between the model depicted in our Figure 4.2 and the model depicted in Schunk’s Figure 5.4 (p. 180). The difference here is that our depiction shows inactive knowledge as being in Long Term Memory and active knowledge is in Working Memory. Essentially, this means that when knowledge is active (being thought about or worked on), that thinking is being done by the Working Memory system. This idea is further explained in the instructional videos.

The primary reason for understanding the information processing system is because this system provides the basic architecture of the cognitive system. Because the components of self-regulation have to operate within this system, the model of information processing tells you about the constraints and enhancements that these components operate under.

You can understand this by thinking about the analogy of a parking garage. Imagine that I have a parking garage and that garage has 500 parking spaces. The number of spaces constrains the number of cars that the garage can hold at any one time. Imagine also though, that the garage includes entrances and exits in four different locations. The design of these portals enhances my ability to manage the flow of cars in and out of the garage. Taken together, we can say that the architecture, how the garage is designed and integrated, affects how I can reasonably use that garage.

An example of how this architecture influences self-regulation can be shown by thinking again about strategies. One aspect of strategy use is that they are effortful; generally, a learner must exert cognitive effort to execute a strategy. As you study the information processing system, you will learn that "effort" means the expenditure of cognitive resources in working memory and these resources are limited. Putting this together, you can see that any strategy a learner can use must fit within the cognitive resource limitations of the information processing system.

In summary, the second half of the course begins with a presentation of the information processing system. Each component of our generic self-regulation learning model is addressed in the subsequent units. As you go through these, you will need to bear in mind that each component must operate within the architecture of the information processing system and that each component operates in interaction with the other components.

Your textbook explains the major principles associated with the information processing system. The two instructional videos that follow delve more deeply into characteristics of this system. These videos cover characteristics of working memory that help you to understand how this system works and how these characteristics relate to student learning.

Introduction

In this unit you will learn about the basic memory (information processing) system, which serves as the foundation for most cognitive theories of learning.

Unit Objectives

By the end of this unit you should be able to

• identify and describe the two-store model of memory including sensory register, attention, working memory, and long term memory;
• explain basic principles of depth of processing and activation; and
• identify and explain encoding; including the important factors that influence encoding.

Readings

• Refer to the Course Schedule for this week's readings.

Activities

• A4.1: Comprehension Quiz

Guided Reading Notes

Overview

As you can see in the "Introduction to the Second Half of This Course" in Canvas, we will cover cognitive theories of learning, focusing on the Contemporary Information Processing Model (IPS, see Figure 5.4) in Unit 4 and Unit 5.

This IPS model includes (a) working memory and (b) long-term memory. Working memory is the stage of information processing that had been labeled short term memory in the original, two-store IPS model. The change to working memory was made as research showed that this is the part of the IPS system responsible for active thinking and awareness (i.e., what one is actively thinking about and how they are thinking at a given moment). Long-term memory is the information processing stage corresponding to the permanent repository of knowledge. Working memory works to store knowledge in longer term memory and this knowledge can be later retrieved from long term memory and actively used in working memory.

In Unit 4 (part of Chapter 5), we will cover an introduction to the information processing system (IPS). This introduction will focus primarily on working memory. The next unit will have a greater focus on long-term memory. That reading is not assigned until Unit 5 but if you want a more comprehensive understanding of cognitive theories now, you can go ahead and read the Unit 5 assignment for the rest of Chapter 5 and Chapter 6.

In Unit 5 (part of Chapter 5 and Chapter 6), you can delve into the long-term memory. We recommend that you should connect what you read in this Unit 4 with the contents in Unit 5.

Early Information Processing Perspectives pp. 170–180

Contemporary Infomation Processing Model pp. 180–182

• The section on Early Information Processing Perspectives introduces some of the issues that are addressed within current cognitive models of information processing. The components of the system described in the Two-Store (Dual) Memory Model (pp. 176–178) provide the foundation that has evolved into the Contemporary Information Processing Model (pp. 180–181).We will use the Contemporary Model Information Processing Model to understand the cognitive processes of learning such as attention, and the encoding, storage and retrieval of knowledge. 

Attention pp. 182–186

• You need to understand attention as the process of selecting environmental input for further processing.
  • Assimilating this idea with the two-store model, this means that attention is the process of bringing stimulus inputs from the environment into working memory where it is active and can be manipulated and connected to knowledge already stored in long-term memory.

Perception pp. 186–188

• Understand the definition of perception and have a general understanding of the factors that influence perception.
• Connect the processes of bringing information from the sensory register to working memory with the earlier section on attention.
• Understand the basics of bottom-up and top-down processing.

Encoding pp. 188–194

• You should be able to connect the information you read throughout this section with the graphic depiction of the information processing shown in the lesson (our Figure 2).
• Be sure to understand working memory and the primary characteristics of working memory. These are the primary focus of the instructional videos in this unit.
• Understand the primary characteristics of working memory. These are the primary focus of the instructional videos in this unit.
• We will cover executive processes as they relate to metacognition when you get to Unit 6. the associative structures of long-term memory are covered in more detail in Unit 5.
• The processes of elaboration and organization are important for understanding the major influences of learning (acquisition and memory for information). Schemas help us to understand how organized knowledge in long-term memory aid comprehension, learning and memory.

Working Memory

In this section we will look at three characteristics of working memory.

Continuum of Effort

That is the final characteristic of working memory I want to cover. You need to keep these characteristics in mind as we move on to other components of self-regulation. Remember, these characteristics provide the system within which things like strategies motivation and knowledge operate.