HLS201: Introduction to Homeland Security
Lesson 2: Pre-9/11 Strategic Setting
Overview
It has been over 10 years since the events of September 11, which forever changed the United States, and in many ways, the world. This historic event has been termed the most significant disaster since the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, and the first disaster that affected the United States on a national scale.
It is important to note that prior to 9/11, both domestic and international terrorists were striking Americans, American facilities, and American interests both within and outside of our borders–though only fleeting interest was garnered in the aftermath of these events. Support for counter-terrorism focused efforts was rather weak and did not secure enough public attention to move towards a more aggressive defense of the homeland. Additionally, our federal government and its organizational structure to combat these threats were bifurcated and dysfunctional. Only the spectacular nature of the September 11 terrorist attacks was significant enough to boost the issue of terrorism to primary standing in the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of the federal government.
In this lesson, you will have the opportunity to identify and discuss what you believe to be the events/documents forming the pre-9/11 strategic setting, both domestic and internationally. In addition, this lesson will provide a historical perspective on the threat of terrorism and will begin our studies with detailed descriptions of the extraordinary actions that were taken by the United States in reaction to September 11.
The definition of “homeland security” is an evolving one, changing throughout the years reflecting the increasing and differing challenges facing our country. Prior to 9/11, the federal government had a very broad mandate, attempting to prevent terrorist attacks, reduce our vulnerabilities, minimize the damage, and to our best abilities recover from attacks against the homeland. As you will see, this basic foundation has expanded to include a shared common interest.
Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, students will be able to do the following:
- Identify and describe world events that have altered the "concept" of homeland security.
- Understand and analyze the international and domestic pre-9/11 strategic setting.
- Learn and comprehend actions taken by the United States and specifically the federal government to respond to and limit the threat of terrorism prior to the attacks of September 11, 2001.
Lesson Readings & Activities
By the end of this lesson, make sure you have completed the readings and activities found in the Course Schedule.
Early Issues in Homeland Security
Before it was called “homeland security” our nation did react to many diverse and difficult situations. It is important from a historical point of view to understand the circumstances that we faced and how throughout the years, the federal government continually failed to recognize the need for a coherent response to disasters that confronted us. We will review some of the significant events and people who have shaped the discipline of homeland security and emergency management over the years. It is important to understand this history and evolution due to the fact that it provides an insight into why these concepts have been applied differently at different times and for more dangerous reasons.
Significant Homeland Security Events: Early Issues
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1800s
1800's - The first time the federal government involved itself with a local disaster occurred when Congress passed legislation to provide financial assistance to a New Hampshire town affected by a devastating fire.
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1930s
1930's - President Franklin Roosevelt created the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) to reduce flooding in the region and to create hydroelectric power.
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1950s
1950's - The Cold War began. Civil defense programs were established throughout the United States resulting in the building of local bomb shelters to protect communities and their residents from a potential nuclear attack by the Soviet Union.
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1960s
1960's - During the 1960s, the United States was struck by numerous natural disasters: earthquake in Alaska and hurricanes in Florida and Texas, resulting in massive flooding and tremendous loss of life. One hurricane in particular, Hurricane Betsy in 1965, caused damage in the coastal regions of Florida and Louisiana, resulting in the federal government creating the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP).
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1970s
1970's - The federal government investigated how its emergency management capabilities were organized and by the end of the decade, those capabilities were extremely tested. As part of these reviews, it was concluded that more than 100 federal agencies were involved in some aspect of risk mitigation and disaster recovery. It was a fragmented approach with parallel organizations engaged in turf battles and a confused reaction to disaster management. Governors were particularly sensitive and concerned, so much so that they collectively sought a single federal agency responsible for emergency management issues. In 1976, Jimmy Carter, former governor of Georgia was elected president and supported the concept of a plan to consolidate emergency preparedness, mitigation, and response activities into one federal agency. During these deliberations, the nation’s worst nuclear power plant accident occurred at Three Mile Island in Middletown, Pennsylvania. This accident caused pause in our country due the lack of adequate preparation and mitigation and the proper roles of the federal/state government in coordination with the private sector. Shortly after the TMI accident, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)–which mandated reassignment of agencies, programs, and personnel–was established by executive order in March 1979.
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1980s
1980's - The early and middle 1980s saw FEMA facing many challenges, but not dealing with significant natural disasters. FEMA continued as a bifurcated and disorganized agency. As the decade came to a close, FEMA was an organization in chaos. In 1989, several devastating events occurred: hurricanes in the Carolinas and Florida and a huge earthquake in the Bay Area of California. FEMA was not prepared to respond and the worst was yet to come.
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1992
In 1992, one of our nation’s worst natural disasters hit the coast of Florida. Hurricane Andrew caused extensive damage and was one of the most destructive hurricanes ever recorded in our nation’s history. FEMA’s failure to respond was witnessed by Americans all across the country as major news organizations followed the crisis. People wanted and expected the government to be there to assist in this time of need, however, FEMA seemed incapable of carrying out essential government emergency management functions. Many historians have claimed that this lack of response assisted Bill Clinton in his election win against incumbent President George H.W. Bush.
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1993
Upon his arrival in Washington in 1993, President Clinton elevated FEMA to a cabinet-level agency and appointed his former Arkansas colleague James Lee Witt as the FEMA director. Mr. Witt was from a group that had created FEMA–state directors of emergency management–and he assumed his position with the objective of building partnerships and serving the various stakeholders involved in emergency management.
Contemporary Roots of Homeland Security
Weapons of Mass Destruction Act of 1996
The contemporary roots of homeland security date back to the first term of President Bill Clinton. Several major terror-related events occurred during that time prompting the drafting and passage of the Nunn-Lugar-Domenici Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) Act of 1996.
- 1993 bombing of the World Trade Tower,
- 1994 Oklahoma City bombing, and
- 1995 Tokyo subway sarin gas attacks.
The primary result of the WMD Act was the provision of greater funding for training and equipment for the nation’s first responders. The act addressed what could be done in the aftermath of a terrorist attack, but very little was done to change the way in which the federal government prevented terrorist acts from occurring in the first place. Always in the background, however, was a growing movement calling for a less fragmented and more coordinated approach to combating terrorism.
In 1996, during the Olympic Games in Atlanta, Georgia, a bomb was detonated in a crowd injuring dozens and killing one. After a lengthy investigation it was determined that the source of the attack was a delusional individual. This attack esulted in the United States recognizing the need for better systems of terrorism prevention.
Presidential Commissions
Two years after the Atlanta incident, Congress agreed with President Clinton by empaneling a group known as the Hart-Rudman Commission. This independent panel was tasked with conducting a comprehensive review of American security with the goal of designing a national security strategy. The Commission’s report that was released in early 2001 recommended the creation of a new independent National Homeland Security Agency with responsibility for planning, coordinating, and integrating various U.S. government activities involved in homeland security. Unfortunately, many of the recommendations were not heeded. Many of its findings, however, would later be integrated into the justification and legislation that created the Department of Homeland Security.
Each of these conclusions and recommendations would take on new meaning in the aftermath of 9/11. Sadly, however, in the absence of a greater recognition of a terrorist threat within the borders of the United States, no major programs were initiated to combat the growing risk. That all changed on Monday, September 11, 2001.