LER444:

Introduction

There are several distinct social forces that have an impact on occupational safety and health within a given organization. These social groups or "actors" may be an inherent part of the workforce or operate independently from a point outside the organization. The interactions between these various groups will determine how safety and health issues are addressed. During this lesson, we will identify the key social actors and outline their roles within OSH.

Lesson Objectives

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to do the following:

• Identify key actors in the OSH field and explain the social perspectives of these groups.
• Cite examples of the safety clauses frequently included in collective bargaining agreements.
• Clarify the roles and responsibilities of OSH professionals.
• List and explain the five core elements of a systematic approach to OSH.

Topics

• Key social actors
  • Management
  • Labor
  • Government
  • Non-governmental organizations
  • OSH professionals
• "Systematic" approach to managing OSH

Lesson Readings & Activities

By the end of this lesson, make sure you have completed the readings and activities by the due dates found in the Course Schedule.

Key Social Actors

Relationships among the major social actors will determine the overall approach to OSH within the workplace. Interactions between these groups will determine whether safety and health issues will be addressed, how they will be addressed, and what issues will be given priority. We will focus on five key actors Management, OSH Professionals, Non-governmental Organizations, Government, Labor:

Figure 2.1. Five Key Actors Impacting OSH

 

 

 

Social Actor #1 - Management

The management group within any organization is trained and rewarded for producing positive financial results. Businesses are established to make a profit and will continue to exist only as long as they achieve this goal. Implementing effective OSH efforts can require a significant investment of resources. Common safety-related expenses within an organization might include the cost of staffing the OSH function, developing necessary OSH programs, providing OSH training, safeguarding equipment, and purchasing protective equipment.

Unfortunately, expenditures on occupational safety and health are sometimes seen by management as limiting profit. This is a shortsighted perspective as OSH can be best viewed as a means of controlling costs. As indicated in the previous lesson, devoting resources to OSH can lead to a substantial cost savings in the form of fewer injuries and illnesses. Employers who have "safe" workplaces with low injury rates will benefit financially through reduced workers' compensation premiums and avoidance of regulatory fines. Expenditures on workplace safety can often be justified by weighing costs against potential benefits.

Let's consider the example of a workplace with equipment that produces a high level of noise. The noise is loud enough that employees working near the equipment must wear earplugs to reduce their risk of hearing loss. The employer is considering the purchase of mufflers which can be installed on the equipment to reduce the noise levels to a safe point.

Weighing the costs and benefits in this situation might be done as follows:

Table 2.1. Workplace Example

Workplace Example

Installation of Noise Mufflers on Equipment
Costs	Benefits
Cost of materials and installation Ongoing maintenance of mufflers	Better employee protection--no longer any potential for noise "overexposure" Reduced potential for employee claims of hearing loss Elimination of regulatory concerns related to noise exposure (no longer need to provide annual hearing test or training to employees) Improved communication between employees due to reduced noise levels Employees may work more efficiently (more comfortable, less stressful work environment) No longer need to purchase hearing protection

In this situation, it is likely that the cost of installing and maintaining the mufflers could be easily justified through an analysis of the potential benefits.

Remember that we also previously described a number of other benefits related to OSH such as better employee relations and a more positive public image. These benefits are difficult to quantify, but may also help persuade management to approve funding for safety initiatives.

Social Actor # 2 - Labor

The core mission of management is to utilize their resources efficiently in order to maximize profits. The primary goal of labor is obtain fair compensation in exchange for the completion of a reasonable workload. In many situations, the objectives of management and labor may not always align with one another.

Safety and health advocacy can be an important unifying issue for management and labor. Research has shown that most employees rank their safety on the job as being more important than wages or benefits. Regardless of the type of work being completed, some general characteristics of the labor approach to OSH can be identified as follows:

• Labor opposes safety programs that consistently blame workers for injuries rather than conditions.
• Labor advocates for the most protective solutions to workplace hazards.
• Labor wants to have the opportunity to participate in OSH efforts.
• Labor wants to be fully informed of the hazards to which they may be exposed.

Regarding the last point, employees are often granted the "right to know" about workplace hazards by a number of regulatory standards. There can be a considerable disconnect between this concept of "right to know" and providing a true understanding of workplace risks.

Consider an employee who uses a particular chemical on a routine basis. This employee is probably not going to be satisfied if their employer simply informs them that the chemical is "dangerous" and that they need to wear a respirator when using it. Most employees will likely want to have a full understanding of exactly what health risks exist and how the respirator will reduce their exposure level. Management must have an appreciation for labor's need to fully understand workplace hazards.

Union Role in OSH

Unions have historically been the most important force in promoting safety and health protection for workers within the United States. Union membership has declined within this country in recent decades and only about 12 percent of all American workers are currently unionized. However, unions continue to be strong advocates for occupational safety and health.

Unions promote OSH through political action and outreach efforts which broadly benefit all workers, not just those who belong to a union. Unions are frequently engaged in lobbying efforts which may have a substantial impact on whether or not new safety legislation is enacted. Within individual workplaces, union members negotiate directly with employers to improve working conditions through collective bargaining.

Collective Bargaining Agreements

Collective bargaining agreements between management and labor typically include a number of safety and health clauses. Typical elements of a contract agreement between management and labor are summarized in the following table:

Table 2.2. Examples of Collective Bargaining Clauses

Safety Clause	Purpose of Clause	Additional Information
General Duty to Protect	Serves as a formal statement of management's commitment to OSH and willingness to implement accident prevention measures.	May also provide a general indication as to how hazards within the workplace will be corrected and whether any specific programs will be implemented beyond those required by regulatory standards.
Safety Committee Protocol	Establishes structure and purpose of such a committee.	Effective safety committees usually include members of both management and labor. A union contract often will indicate who will serve on the committee (i.e., how many members of management and how many members of labor) and what specific duties will be assigned to this group.
Training Provisions	Clarifies the organization's approach to providing safety training to employees.	This portion of the agreement may serve to indicate what safety topics will be covered, how often training will be provided, and who will provide the training over a defined period of time.
Conditions for Refusing Hazardous Work	Documents procedures for resolving situations in which employees refuse to complete work due to perceived safety or health hazards.	Resolutions can vary greatly, but the contract will typically designate certain individuals who will need to evaluate the work in question and reach consensus on how to proceed. (For example, a contract may indicate that a union representative, a management representative, and an OSH professional must collectively evaluate the concern before any work proceeds.)
"Whistleblower" Protection	Confirms that management will not take any disciplinary action against employees who report safety or health concerns.	Although all employees (union and non-union) are granted certain "whistleblower" protections by the federal government, this is still a common safety clause within collective bargaining agreements.

 

 

Social Actor # 3 - Government

History has shown the need for governmental involvement in occupational safety and health. Although most employers strive to provide a safe and healthy work environment, this is not the case within all workplaces. Fierce economic pressure may undercut even the most responsible employers and persuade them to overlook certain OSH obligations. The need for government oversight of OSH becomes crucial in this situation.

Several regulatory groups have been established to ensure the protection and well-being of American workers.

• The Occupational Safety and Health Administration or "OSHA" is the federal governing body for workplace safety in the United States.
• The Mine Safety and Health Administration or "MSHA" serves a similar role to OSHA, but with a specific focus on the mining industry.
• The Environmental Protection Agency or "EPA" focuses on the protection of both human health and the environment.

All of these groups have been granted the authority to develop mandatory compliance standards and to enforce these standards through a penalty system.

Factors Impacting Government Regulation of OSH

Due to conflicting interests, the government is often placed in a difficult position when it comes to the regulation of occupational safety and health. Some factors that may impact regulation are discussed below:

Cost Members of the public usually want greater workplace protections put into place, but industry will naturally resist most attempts to create additional regulatory obligations due to cost considerations. Government regulators thus may be caught between public pressure to intervene in OSH and potential impacts upon the economy.

Control The struggle for safe working conditions can also raise issues of control over the workplace. There is a strong sense of "private property" within the United States and this mindset can extend to how employers feel about government oversight of OSH. While other countries may be more open to government intervention, many US employers strongly object to regulatory groups not only dictating how they should best protect their employees, but also possessing the ability to enter their workplaces and assess their efforts.

Politics Momentum shifts between Republican and Democratic presidential administrations are another important social aspect of government involvement in OSH. Republican administrations are typically viewed as being "pro-business" while Democratic administrations are often perceived as being "pro-labor." Shifts in political power may influence not only how much emphasis is placed on creating new OSH legislation, but also how compliance with existing legislation is assessed by the government.

In recent years, Republican leadership has emphasized the need for certain regulatory groups to "partner" with industry using a non-punitive approach. In contrast, Democratic administrations have tended to rely more on enforcement activities as a means of ensuring employers meet their compliance obligations.

Social Actor # 4 - Non-Governmental Organizations

There are a range of non-governmental organizations who act as advocates for workers, their communities, and the environment. These groups extend their efforts to better educate the public about their causes and also serve as a considerable lobbying force for political action. Many of these groups have become more active in recent years as the government has become more reluctant to introduce new legislation.

It is important to note that non-governmental organizations have historically been more focused on environmental causes than on workplace safety issues. Groups such as Greenpeace and the Sierra Club are well known for their efforts to protect the environment. Although organizations that promote worker safety exist, they are not nearly as visible as the groups noted.

A recent trend has seen some environmental advocacy groups beginning to partner with unions. These so-called "blue-green" alliances may eventually result in more emphasis being placed on occupational safety and health causes.

Social Actor # 5 - Occupational Safety and Health Professionals

Those individuals who oversee the safety and health efforts within an organization can be collectively referred to as "OSH professionals."

These individuals are typically part of the management team. However, they warrant being discussed separately from management due to their unique role in relation to OSH.

The basic job of all OSH professionals is to do the following:

• Monitor safety and health indicators within the work environment.
• Compare these indicators to relevant standards or benchmarks.
• Make corresponding recommendations on the need for corrective actions to management.

Placement of the OSH Professional within the Organization

Ideally, the OSH professional reports directly to the highest-level administrator within the organization. This direct line of communication ensures that information concerning safety and health does not become "filtered." If the OSH professional reports to a lower-level administrator who is unfamiliar with OSH, the severity of a workplace hazard may not be accurately conveyed. As a result, the organization can fail to act responsibly to correct a situation that may result in injury or death.

It should be noted that the lack of a direct line of communication between the OSH professional and the highest-level administrator is not uncommon. OSH professionals are often assigned to various departments within the organization and hence report to the individuals who manage those departments.

Consider the following organizational chart (Figure 2.2) in which the chief executive officer (CEO) has five vice presidents that report directly to him or her. The Occupational Safety and Health Department is under the supervision of the vice president for Human Resources.

Figure 2.2. Example of a Company Organizational Chart

The problem with this arrangement is that the OSH professional reports to the VP of Human Resources rather than the CEO. If the VP of Human Resources has little or no OSH knowledge, information concerning safety issues may be ignored or misconstrued when it is eventually presented to the CEO.

While the above organizational chart is not ideal, the situation can be rectified by inserting a "dotted line" between the OSH professional and the CEO. In other words, the OSH professional should have the ability to directly discuss critical OSH issues with the CEO as the need arises.

Staff Role of OSH Professionals

"Line" positions are directly involved in the primary function of an organization, whether it is manufacturing a product or selling a service. Line personnel carry out the essential activities of a business and are considered critical to the basic functioning of the organization. Line managers make the majority of the decisions for an organization and direct line personnel to achieve company goals.

"Staff" positions serve the organization by providing support to line functions. OSH professionals usually serve as staff members within most organizations.  Other common examples of staff positions would include those employed in marketing, accounting, or information technology. Staff personnel have technical expertise that can be used to assist line managers in making decisions. Staff members have no direct authority over line personnel, but they can still have a strong influence on organizational activities.

Staff members are often granted "functional authority" based upon their expertise in a particular area. This type of authority gives staff personnel power over a particular function such as occupational safety and health. Having functional authority enables an OSH professional to take such actions as stopping unsafe processes or periodically auditing line personnel to ensure they are implementing required safety measures.

OSH professionals will ideally work in an advisory capacity to line management. Under most circumstances, the OSH professional should act as a resource and provide consultation to line members. Line management must then make decisions related to safety based on information provided by the OSH professional. This approach places the responsibility for workplace safety on line management and the line function is thus ultimately accountable for the success or failure of OSH efforts.

Types of OSH Professionals

There are several different types of OSH professionals. Most companies will not have personnel individually assigned to each of these roles. In fact, many organizations may combine one or more of these functions into a single position. Smaller companies might not directly employ any OSH professionals and instead may rely on external providers such as consultants or insurers to address their needs.

The common types of OSH professionals are as follows:

Table 2.3. Common OSH Professionals

Title	Responsibilities	Training/Certifications	Notes
Safety Professional	Focus primarily on the prevention of injuries and property damage. Evaluate a broad range of safety hazards and develop methods for controlling them. Ensure compliance with applicable safety regulations. Evaluate the overall effectiveness of the organization's safety efforts.	Those who meet defined educational and experience requirements may hold the title of "Certified Safety Professional" or "CSP" after successfully completing an exam process.	Job titles vary and may include "safety manager," "safety director," "safety administrator," or "safety engineer."
Industrial Hygienist	Focus on health hazards which are associated with various workplace agents including chemicals, noise, heat, radiation, and ergonomic stressors. Measure employee exposures to these agents and advise how to best control any "overexposures" which are detected.	Those employed in this field can obtain the title of "Certified Industrial Hygienist" or "CIH" after completing an application and testing process.	Pure industrial hygienists are usually only found within larger organizations. Their functions are often combined with those of a safety professional into a single position.
Environmental Professional	Assess and manage the effects of industrial activities on natural resources. Ensure adequate pollution control, manage waste streams, and acquire any necessary environmental permits. Evaluate organizational compliance with environmental regulations.	Certifications available within this field include Registered Environmental Manager (REM) and Certified Hazardous Materials Manager (CHMM).	It is not unusual to see the duties of an environmental professional combined with either or both of the preceding professions, especially in smaller organizations.
Occupational Physician	Specialize in the treatment of workplace injuries and illnesses. Complete fitness-for-duty evaluations. Oversee completion of routine medical screening such as hearing and respiratory function tests.	Board certification in occupational medicine. (Note: There are only several thousand board-certified occupational physicians within the United States. Given the low number of practitioners, the reality is that most work-related injuries and illnesses are not treated by an occupational physician).	May be employed by an individual company or may have their own practice in which they provide services to a large number of employers.
Occupational Nurse	Specialize in the delivery of health care services to worker populations. Care of injured employees and case management to ensure their return to the workplace. Conduct medical screening.	Licensed registered nurse.	May work independently or under the supervision of an occupational physician.

Systematic Approach to Managing OSH

We identified management as one of the five key social actors which have an impact on occupational safety and health. Management is ultimately responsible for determining the approach to safety and health efforts within the organization. Taking a "systematic" approach to OSH is generally considered the best way to meet the expectations of each social actor.

It is important to note that OSH can be managed in a similar manner to many other organizational functions. OSH management is not unique from the approach often taken with production, quality control, or customer service. All of these functions can be best managed through the use of a systematic approach. From an OSH perspective, this typically includes the implementation of five core elements:

Figure 2.2. Systematic Approach

As indicated in the diagram, the five core elements of a systematic approach to OSH are management commitment, employee involvement, hazard identification, hazard control, and training.

The Five Core Elements of a Systemic Approach to OSH

An overview of each element is as follows:

• Management Commitment
  The management group within every organization must visibly support OSH efforts if they are to be successful. Leadership alone can make safety a key business goal and provide the necessary resources to achieve safety objectives. Employees within every organization take their cues from administrators, managers, and supervisors. If leadership consistently treats safety as a priority, so will the rest of the work group. Conversely, if employees do not sense a strong leadership commitment to safety then they may feel it is not worth focusing on during their daily activities.

  An important aspect of management commitment to OSH is the assignment of safety responsibilities throughout the organization. Each individual must have a clear understanding of what their role is within the overall OSH effort. This need is true regardless of the employee's job title or administrative level. Managers, supervisors, and front-line employees all have distinct safety responsibilities. Employees must understand these responsibilities and must be held accountable for meeting them by leadership.

• Employee Involvement
  Management must establish methods for employees to actively participate in OSH efforts. Employee involvement can provide the means through which employees develop and express a commitment to workplace safety. Employees who feel they are a part of the safety process are more likely to comply with established procedures and work cooperatively with management to resolve safety issues.

  Effective employee involvement also allows management to take advantage of the unique insights offered by their employees. An operator who runs the same piece of equipment on a production line every day is likely to be aware of specific hazards associated with that equipment or related work processes. These same hazards are not likely to be noticed by management or others who may simply pass by the work area occasionally. Viewing workers as the "experts" at their assigned tasks can yield tremendous benefits to the employer in the form of safety feedback.

• Hazard Identification
  We defined "hazard" in the previous lesson as "an unsafe condition or unsafe act that can lead to an accident." A critical component of a systematic approach to OSH is establishing methods for identifying hazards within the workplace. Two common methods of identifying hazards within a work setting are safety inspections and audits.

  • Inspections involve a tour of the workplace in an attempt to visually identify potential hazards. Items noted during such an inspection might include damaged ladders, slippery floors, or unsafe lifting practices being used by employees.
  • Audits differ from inspections in that they focus on the review of established programs and procedures. Audits help to ensure that these programs are maintained over time and that required actions continue to be taken. Deficiencies uncovered during an audit may indicate that an employer has failed to update safe work procedures to reflect current conditions or has not provided training at the required frequency.

An important aspect of hazard identification is that it is ideally approached in a "proactive" manner. The goal of every employer should be to identify hazards before they lead to an accident. The benefit of taking this approach is obviously the avoidance of both human suffering and financial losses. Hazards can also be identified after an accident has occurred using "reactive" methods. Both proactive and reactive forms of hazard identification will be discussed in greater detail during a future lesson.

• Hazard Control
  Once hazards have been identified, it is then imperative that they be adequately controlled. Employers must effectively "close the loop" on hazard findings. This process may entail taking such actions as upgrading equipment, developing safe work procedures, or providing safety training to employees.

  Effective hazard control will ensure that the potential for injury or illness is either eliminated or reduced to an acceptable level of risk. Controls for workplace hazards should be considered in terms of a specific hierarchy of options (i.e., "hierarchy of controls") which we will further explore later in this course.

• Training
  The need for employee training is closely associated with occupational safety and health. Although it can be considered a form of hazard control, the need for training is so ubiquitous within the OSH field that it has been included as a separate element within our systematic approach. Employees need to be provided with adequate knowledge to avoid hazards that they face on the job. This knowledge is critical because many workplace hazards are not obvious and may be unique to a given work environment or process.

  Safety and health training may be general in nature or might be job-specific. In many cases, regulatory requirements may drive the content and frequency of training. Delivery methods can vary greatly and may incorporate traditional classroom lectures, hands-on demonstrations, or online content.

  An important aspect of OSH training is that it can serve as a key area for integrating safety into the organization. For example, most employees receive some level of training when they are assigned a task for the first time. An employer should take this as an opportunity to not only teach the employee how to complete the task, but at the same time how to complete it safely. Employees are likely to perceive this approach as an indication that the employer places as much emphasis on their personal safety as they do on completion of the job task.

Note that three of the elements included in our systematic approach--management commitment, employee involvement, and training--are not specific to OSH and are general enough to apply to many other major functions within an organization. It is usually necessary to have these three elements in place if an organization is to be successful with any type of broad initiative whether it is occupational safety and health, quality control, or customer service.

The other two elements--hazard identification and hazard control--use terminology that is specific to OSH. However, this same need to "find and fix" concerns exists elsewhere in the organization. For example, the quality control group within an organization may be focused on finding and fixing product defects. Likewise, the customer service group may be interested in identifying and correcting consumer complaints. The focus of these other groups is not on workplace hazards, but they have the same need to identify and control "flaws" within their structure.

Concluding Remarks on Systematic Approach to OSH

Most safety experts and a number of organizations that develop OSH standards strongly recommend taking a systematic approach to safety and health within the workplace. Building such a structure provides management with an organized and consistent template for injury and illness prevention. However, there is currently no legal requirement to have such a system in place.

OSHA attempted to mandate the implementation of a "safety management system" by all employers under their jurisdiction in the 1980s, but this effort was not successful. This failed proposal has since served as a model for employers in the form of guidelines available on the OSHA website. However, these guidelines are considered voluntary and there is no regulatory obligation for employers to follow them.

This issue has recently garnered some attention as OSHA is now revisiting the concept of requiring employers to develop a formal "system" for managing their safety efforts. OSHA has proposed mandating a system which is being referred to as the "Injury and Illness Prevention Program" or "I2P2."

Key Points:

• The key social actors associated with occupational safety and health include management, labor, government, non-governmental organizations, and OSH professionals. The relationships and interactions among these social actors will determine how safety and health issues will be addressed within the workplace.
• Collective bargaining agreements typically include a number of safety and health clauses.
• Common clauses within a collective bargaining agreement include the employer's general duty to protect, safety committee protocol, training provisions, conditions for refusing hazardous work, and whistleblower protection.
• Several professions exist within the OSH field including safety professionals, industrial hygienists, environmental professionals, occupational physicians, and occupational nurses. Each of these professionals has specific roles and responsibilities pertaining to workplace safety and health.
• OSH professionals work in a "staff" capacity. They will ideally serve in an advisory role to "line" management. Although OSH professionals are normally granted "functional authority," line management is ultimately responsible for workplace safety and health.
• Occupational safety and health can be managed in a manner similar to many other organizational functions.
• Occupational safety and health is most effectively managed using a systematic approach based upon management commitment, employee involvement, hazard identification, hazard control, and training.