Lesson 1: Organizational Behavior and Individual Differences

Introduction

Humans behave differently in organizations than they do on their own. Each of us brings a number of individual differences to each group setting of which we are a part. Although there are standard patterns of behavior that we could expect from everyone, the variations can be largely explained by differences between us. For example, a person with an introverted personality may be perceived as "stuck up" by extroverted coworkers. Actually, the opposite may be true. By understanding what these differences are and how they affect our behavior, we can better predict the behavior of those with whom we work.

Objectives

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

Explain how our concept of individual differences has changed over the thousands of years that humans have studied human behavior, what recent science has found, how the research was done, and the direction of future research

Explain your personality, how it affects working interactions with team members and managers, and what changes to your behavior need to be made in order to be most effective

Explain how the personalities of your current project team members have affected problem situations and describe how these problems can be better addressed.

 

1.1 Organizational Behavior

Organizational Behavior evolved over the past 50 years as a result of the need to understand how and why humans behave in large groups. Humans have been thinking about, studying, writing about, and hypothesizing about organizational behavior for millennia, but the academic field is relatively new. In part, this is a reaction to the World Wars and the Holocaust. Most people find it impossible to believe that humans can be convinced to do horrible things to other humans, yet that type of behavior continues today.

Although most of us will never have to deal with anything as serious as a war or a holocaust, project managers also need to understand how humans behave when they are in groups--specifically, how to predict human behavior in team settings. Although we are unlikely to think about it in those exact terms, we all want our lives to be stable. Anticipating how another one, two, or even a hundred people will act makes us feel more secure and safe. In my opinion, the number one priority in teaching organizational behavior is to make us better able to predict human behavior in our workplace.

To put this in specific terms for project managers, we need to know, before they happen, the people-related issues and problems that will occur over a project's duration. Which team members will not perform as necessary? Which team members will become frustrated or discouraged? Which team members will cause problems? Which team members will need extra guidance or emotional support? How will team members react under periods of high stress?

 

 

1.1.1 Project Leaders and Related Fields

Before your expectations are raised too high, I need to issue a disclaimer. This course is not going to eliminate all people-related surprises from your projects. However, it will help you anticipate, avoid, and cope with them when they occur. I cannot think of any project problem that is not people-related, by the way. Can you?

Many of the project leaders I know come from technical fields like engineering and information systems. It is unusual for students in technical fields to study psychology, sociology, political science, or anthropology. There are several reasons for that.

 

People with technical interests tend not to be interested in human behavior and they avoid these types of classes. When I lived in Sweden, my son attended an English language math and science high school. There were two separate curriculums--physical sciences and social sciences. Students took one or the other by choice. The Swedes were surprised that my son was taking both in his high school. In that school, it was a black and white issue.

Technical curriculums tend to be full of technical courses and allow few, if any, electives in courses concerning human behavior.

Few U.S. high schools teach, let alone require, courses in human behavior. It is common to hear complaints about the curriculums in the schools, but the criticisms tend to favor more mathematics, science, and writing rather than a need for more courses to improve human understanding. This seems odd considering that the most important things that we do in our lives involve interactions with other human beings. It may be odd, but it is unlikely to change given all of the demands on educators.

Behavior in others which is different from our own is seen as deviant. Whether we are thinking about patterns of behavior common within our family, our religion, our ethnic group, our country, and so on, if it is different from ours, it is strange and seems wrong. In other words, we all think that we know how to behave with others and if something goes wrong, it is not our fault. We have to force ourselves to look beyond our own habits and open our minds to understanding the ideas, beliefs, and habits underlying the behavior of others.

Technical experts tend to rely on specific tools and concrete measures. To research human behavior and individual differences, we use abstract tools and statistical techniques which supply means and medians that are not as concrete as the tools that we use for technical measurement. This concerns people who rely on numbers for understanding the world around them. Some give up on understanding human behavior. I know some technical experts who simply assume the worst about other people (and life), as a mean of coping with unpredictable events.

 

1.1.2 A Brief History of Organizational Behavior, or O.B.

Although organizational behavior is a relatively new field, people have been studying it for thousands of years across cultures. From The Art of War by Sun Tzu approximately 2400 years ago to The Prince by Machiavilli in the 15th century, humans have been seeking advice on the best way to manage others. Since we are still seeking advice, it is apparent that no one person has yet provided the magic pill for managers. The problem is that we are all seeking the "one secret" to effective management. We can learn technical skills, we can measure quantity and quality, we can create products, and we can develop strategies, but few can predict and/or control human behavior. This is why books like The One Minute Manager, Seven Habits of Highly Effective People, and Winning sell so well. How wonderful it would be if a magic management formula could be delivered in a quick read! The bad news is that human behavior is too complex to explain easily.

The understanding of human behavior began with philosophy and religion--both subjects are also devoted to predicting how humans will behave and religion also uses threats of punishment and predictions of rewards to control humans. Economics and Psychology evolved from philosophy. Social psychology became a specialization within psychology. Anthropology developed as a field where first-hand observations of human behavior are used to understand humans in group settings across cultures. Economics continues to study incentives to behavior. Management has now emerged from all of these fields. In the past hundred years, several ideas evolved which still drive the behavior of managers.

 

1.1.3 The Modern Theories of O.B.

Scientific Management

The modern era of management advice began with Frederick Taylor and what is called Scientific Management. Taylor's approach developed out of his beliefs about the average factory worker. These workers tended to be uneducated, at the lower rungs of socio-economic status, and have a need for money for day-to-day subsistence. For these reasons, Taylor taught managers to carefully design each job so that they were foolproof. He also believed that money motivates individuals and that humans are rational--the fatal flaw in all of our dealings with others. Therefore, all incentives were geared toward individuals and what developed was the piecework system of compensation.

Bureaucratic Management

Max Weber introduced an approach called Bureaucratic Management. Typically, we use the term, bureaucracy, as derogatory, so it is hard to believe that it was actually advocated by a management expert. Weber believed that authority ought to equal responsibility, the goals of the organization are more important than individuals, pay should be fair and tied to effort, everyone should have just one boss, and communication should follow a chain of command. He also believed that workers are rational. As you all know, most government agencies, Fortune 500 companies, and the military are all designed based on this model. Although we hear lots of talk about "boundarylessness," boundaries do exist in every organization; we owe Max Weber for that.

Human Relations Theory

Human Relations Theory developed next, accidentally. After assisting a large company with surprising findings to its research on the impact of lighting on productivity, Mayo and others learned that humans use social interaction to decide how much effort to expend. As lighting levels were increased for an experimental group of workers, performance went up. However, this lighting manufacturer was surprised to learn that performance went up when the lighting level was lowered too. The Hawthorne Effect, as it was called by the scientists, taught us that groups set rules for behavior--"Don't do too much, Don't do too little, Never tell on a coworker, and We are all equal." Of course, these rules are based on potential negative outcomes experienced when one person violates one of the rules. The most important outcome of this approach and the research that followed was that managers realized that management was much more complex than training a dog to do tricks with a treat.

Human Resources Theory

After years of study, experimentation, and observation of the most effective organizations, many modern OB practitioners advocate an approach called Human Resources Theory. This approach suggests that workers want and need a sense of accomplishment, creativity, autonomy, and feedback; they want to be involved in goal setting and problem solving; communication should be horizontal and diagonal, as well as vertical, and workers must be trained to effectively perform.

Like all previous ideas about management, we have learned that sometimes these ideas work and sometimes they do not. Their effectiveness depends on two important variables--individual differences and group make-up. For this lesson, we will focus on individual differences.

 

1.2 Individual Differences

Activity: The Myers-Briggs Inventory

We will be talking about several individual differences that impact behavior in organizations during the next few lessons. For the rest of this lesson, I will focus on personality. Be sure that you have completed the reading assignment as specified in your online syllabus before proceeding. In addition, please complete the Myers-Briggs personality inventory. This inventory is available through a link on your course Web site. Have your results handy as you proceed through the lesson.

Our personality is a relatively stable set of characteristics, tendencies, and temperaments. Sounds pretty general, doesn't it? In practice, our personality influences all of the choices we make, all of the things we do, and the direction of our lives. One of my colleagues does not believe in personality. He thinks that everyone is the same. Ironically, he has one of the most predictable personalities you will ever encounter. He believes only in what he can see, hear, smell, touch, and taste. As you might already suspect, he is an accountant. In his approach to his career, he is fatalistic--this temperament manifests itself in the following behaviors:

He claims that he learns "the game" (i.e., his understanding of the game) and plays it in order to survive at work,

He uses a subservient approach when he deals with the "power brokers,"

He always expects the worst case scenario and tends to spend a lot of time "waiting and seeing."

He doesn't always complete special assignments because things may not turn out anyway so--why waste his time?

He hates change.

I tell you this story because many technical people don't like concepts like personality which they cannot see--they are abstract, not concrete, and difficult to measure. The truth is that personality can be seen, and can be measured. In addition, using information from personality assessments, behavior can be predicted. Are predictions infallible? No, because there are so many variables that influence behavior, but it can prove to be helpful when you manage a project team.

 

1.2.1 Where Personality Comes From

Where does your personality come from? It appears that personality emerges from a number of sources--remember, humans are complex. The most likely sources are:

Genetics: Keep in mind that even if your mother has blue eyes, you may have brown. However, even if physical characteristics from biological family members differ, somewhere in your ancestry someone probably had personality traits similar to yours.

Environment: The debate between nature and nurture is a pointless one, in my view, because both matter. The way that you are raised influences your personality. However, two siblings raised in the same home will have different personalities.

Cultural and Social Factors: Values learned by observing others in our society will influence our personality. We may even imitate the behavior of others and that behavior may lead to personality shifts. For example, in a society that shares food and shelter, one may become more oriented toward others or less individualistic.

Situational Factors: People who live with daily stress caused by war, hunger, or great excesses will be influenced by their circumstances.

Although there is much debate about this, I believe that personality is formed at a very early age, probably by four or five years old. Research suggests that our personality is stable--it doesn't change over time. We may fake our personality and behave in ways that coincide with a particular group's standards and values, but the personality does not change. Some studies have concluded that personality changes only after a very traumatic event like the death of a close relative or the experience of fighting in a war. Many students have debated me over this because they believe that they have changed over time. Most likely, though, they have changed their behavior to get something that they wanted. For example, a "wild thing" who used to ride a motorcycle, hang with his "boys," and think of himself as a "rebel" may meet a great woman, marry, have a house and children, own a minivan, and work in a cubicle. Does this mean that his personality has changed? Check back when he goes through his mid-life crisis in his 40's or 50's. Most of us must adjust our behavior to fit societal standards or to please an individual who matters to us. That doesn't mean that our personalities have changed.

 

1.2.2 Reflective Exercise: How Personality is Formed

Let's think about how personality is formed. Take a minute to complete the following:

Describe each of your parents in some detail.
Here is an example: My father was quiet and reserved around people. He was stern in his demeanor and a strict parent. He needed a beer to loosen up. He was very protective of his family members, loved to negotiate deals, argue controversial topics, and preferred to be self-employed during most of his adulthood despite lacking good business knowledge. He was very independent and a risk-taker. Now it is your turn.

In what ways are you like each of your parents?
Example: I am also quiet until I get to know people and tend to be reserved. I am very independent and enjoy a good intellectual argument.

In what ways are you unlike each of your parents?
Example: Unlike my father, I do not like to negotiate and make deals. I take risks, but they are carefully measured and planned.

Do you see any personality similarities between your children, you, and your parents?
Example: My youngest son loves to argue controversial topics, negotiate deals, and compete. He is determined to never work in a cubicle at a "regular" job. My oldest son is a real risk taker. He will try anything and prides himself on being independent. He tends to be a bit reserved in a new social setting.

 

There is no need to submit the answers to this exercise. Think about the answers to the questions, and if you wish, you may choose to share any insights on the course Web site.

 

1.2.3 Personality and Genetics

Because I am interested in the subject, I pay attention to personality and genetics. I notice when an old friend who is future oriented like her mother, achievement oriented like her father, keeps a neat and orderly desk like her brother, and cares more about people than material things like her grandfather. We know that part of our personality comes from genetics. We are not sure how this works exactly, but cognitive psychologists are getting closer to the explanation--most likely it has to do with the physical (especially, chemical) make-up of each individual. Like eye and hair color, sometimes we are very much like our parents, and sometimes, we are like others in our family who lived before we were born. Seeing as how most families have secrets somewhere in their pasts, we may not know for sure who all of our ancestors (and the genes) even are.

Fortunately, genetics are not the whole story behind our personalities.

 

1.2.4 Personality and Environment

Our environments also affect our personalities. It is obvious that children growing up in a war zone will be affected in many different ways including their personalities. Most Americans do not, however, live in those kinds of circumstances. Our environments will vary based on our parents' personalities, levels of education, personal habits, behavior, and other aspects of home life. Our personalities will be affected by the schools we attend, our friends and other peers, extended families, caregivers, neighborhoods, and socio-economic status, as well as all other characteristics of our environment. How would this work? A tendency toward orderliness and a preference for privacy are commonly considered personality traits. A child who has these types of personality traits who is living in a very disorganized family, in a small filthy home, with several siblings and several animals must develop a tolerance for messiness and a lack of privacy in order to survive. Maybe the basic personality traits will emerge when the child is an adult, but it is also likely that he will live the way he was raised.

 

1.2.5 Personality and Social/Cultural Factors

In addition to individual environments, our personalities are shaped, in part, by the culture and social factors common where we are raised. One commonly discussed personality tendency is time orientation. In some cultures, people are very laid back about time, arriving on time, finishing on time, etc. In the U.S., however, we tend to be quite paranoid about time. We must show up on time, we must finish on time, and we must be accountable for our time. A person raised in a society that is uptight about timeliness, but with a basically laid back personality, will either change or will be unable to achieve success in that culture.

I have heard funny stories about comic books in Japan for workers who dislike the group orientation in their work culture. They are individualists who conform at work but really want individual recognition and rewards. The legend claims that these comic books are sold under the counter, so to speak, because they are so offensive to the culture. To live in any chosen society, we must adjust our natural tendencies to the culture.

 

1.2.6 Personality and Situational Variables

Finally, research suggests that situational variables may also affect our personalities. Generally, we are talking about specific events that occur at any stage of life that are so disruptive that they change our personalities. For example, seeing combat in war, losing a child in an accident, or becoming severely disabled are all the types of situations which might cause personality changes.

 

1.2.7 Personality Measurement Instruments

Obviously, personality is a very complicated subject which scientists are still sorting out. However, it is extremely important to try to understand it because we believe that personality affects our behavior. Since most of our waking hours are spent at work, effective project managers must have a basic understanding of personality.

There are specific instruments used to measure personality and many do it with high levels of reliability (they are consistent over time) and validity (they measure what they are supposed to measure). Here are four of the better known tests, what they measure, and how they are used:

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory: This test diagnoses psychological disorders. It is used in clinical settings to diagnose and treat patients with mental problems. It is also used to screen candidates for top security positions like CIA or FBI positions. It was used by a large chain of discount stores to screen applicants, but after a lawsuit was filed by employees, who did not like the invasive nature of the questions, it is no longer being used.

California Personality Inventory: This test measures basic personality traits which could impact work performance. It has been used to screen applicants for specific types of jobs.

Myers-Briggs Personality Inventory: This test measures 16 basic personality types. It is particularly useful for training and team building. You have been asked to complete the Myers Briggs inventory for this course. Are the results accurate?  Ask people who know you well and observe you often.

NEO-Five Factor Inventory: This instrument measures the Big Five, that is, the five dimensions of personality that many researchers believe make up the basic structure of all personality traits. This tool is used primarily for research. I have used it for several publications.

There are many other personality tests which are used for both selection and training purposes. It is important that the tools that are used have been tested for reliability and validity for the specific purposes for which they are to be used.

 

1.2.8 "The Big Five"

Researchers have attempted to break personality into its smallest component parts. In doing so, they came up with what is known as "The Big Five." This term refers to the five components believed to make up personality. The researchers who have studied it believe that those lowest common denominators are:

Conscientiousness: This means what you think it does. Conscientiousness is a dimension found in people who always follow through with commitments, set goals, are reliable, do their best, and can be trusted.

Extroversion: This dimension is found in people who prefer being with others, working on teams, and interacting frequently with colleagues. They tend to have high energy levels when they are around other people. They may even become more energized in groups.

Neuroticism: This dimension is characteristic of people who are nervous, feel that they are being watched and evaluated constantly, and are continuously watching their backs. They tend to be more concerned with meeting their deadlines or making their numbers than they are about the people with whom they work.

Agreeableness: This dimension of personality is found in people who are very concerned about others. They consider the impact on people before they make decisions and they raise the important human aspects when changes occur (e.g. how will this change affect the people involved?).

Openness is characteristic of those who are interested in a broad range of things, including art and literature, are open to change in organizations, enjoy exploring new options, and enjoy creative work.

Recent research suggests that conscientiousness is a valid predictor of overall work performance, conscientiousness and extroversion are good predictors of management performance, extroversion is a good predictor of sales performance, and neurotic managers have more accidents and injuries in their departments. Much study is currently going on with these personality dimensions.

We have now reached the end of Lesson 1. By now, you should have a clearer understanding of organizational behavior and personality. You should also have completed your reading assignment as specified in your online syllabus. In the next lesson, we will discuss perception and attitudes.

 

Lesson 1: Organizational Behavior and Individual Differences

Introduction

Humans behave differently in organizations than they do on their own.  Each of us brings a number of individual differences to each group setting of which we are a part.  Although there are standard patterns of behavior that we could expect from everyone, the variations can be largely explained by differences between us.  For example, a person with an introverted personality may be perceived as "stuck up" by extroverted coworkers.  Actually, the opposite may be true.  By understanding what these differences are and how they affect our behavior, we can better predict the behavior of those with whom we work.

Objectives

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Explain how our concept of individual differences has changed over the thousands of years that humans have studied human behavior, what recent science has found, how the research was done, and the direction of future research
• Explain his or her personality, how it affects working interactions with team members and managers, and what changes to behavior need to be made to be most effective
• Explain how the personalities of current project team members have affected problem situations and describe how these problems can be better addressed