Factor II: Availability of Techniques and Methods

The second factor that helped define the use of performance measurement in the public sector was the availability of techniques and methods for improving organizational efficiency. These techniques and methods had largely been developed for the purpose of improving efficiency in private sector organizations. They had been developed in an attempt to apply scientific principles as a means of improving efficiency in the production of goods and services. This approach, referred to as "scientific management," was a product of the Progressive movement. As such, it posited that society's ills could be resolved by using remedies identified through scientific research. (If you are unfamiliar with the Progressive movement, you are encouraged to visit the Wikipedia entry on the Progressive Era.)

The New York Bureau (and other bureaus that were established across the United States) was a part of the Progressive movement's emphasis on applying scientific knowledge to enhance societal and organizational outcomes. As such, they a direct interest in promoting scientific methods and practices as a means of improving the efficiency by which governments conducted their affairs. In particular, the Bureau took notice of and was influenced by the research and recommendations produced by one of the key figures in the scientific management movement: Frederick Taylor. In order to understand the early phases of performance measurement, it is therefore essential to understand Taylor's role in the municipal movements.

Frederick Taylor and Scientific Management

Many consider Taylor to be the father of scientific management. Consistent with the scientific management movement, Taylor believed that efficiency improvements were best realized through scientific research aimed at determining the best approach for conducting a particular organization task. Furthermore, similar to other notable proponents of the scientific approach to management (e.g., Frank Bunker Gilbreth, Sr.), Taylor believed in the notion that there is "one best way" of organizing and executing a particular organizational task. The key to efficiency improvements, thus, was to be found in science and research.

The use of performance measures was an important ingredient in Taylor's efforts to identify the one best way of conducting organizational tasks. In essence, they were viewed as a tool for finding ways to improve existing approaches to conducting various organizational tasks. Toward this end, he developed and applied a number of different performance measures. These measures tended to focus on measuring the time and motions associated with select tasks for the purpose of scientifically determining the best way of conducting the tasks. A good example that illustrates this approach is the many time and motion studies that Taylor conducted. For example, in his study named the "Science of Shoveling," he conducted time studies to determine the optimal weight that a worker should lift in a shovel (it was determined to be 21 pounds).

The emphasis that Taylor placed on using science to improve efficiency is described in his seminal book, The Principles of Scientific Management, which was published in 1911. This book provides important insights into the assumptions upon which the scientific management approach rested, as well as the scope within which performance measures were used. One such insight can be drawn from Taylor’s suggestion that the removal of inefficiency lay ultimately in adopting scientifically proven "best ways" to execute the tasks involved in the production process, rather than searching for "extraordinary people."

This view highlights a defining characteristic of the scientific management movement: the limited role that individual decision making played in the scientific management framework. In essence, Taylor regarded the scientific approach for improving efficiency as superior to an approach that relied on individuals' creativity and ability to make sound judgments. Toward this end, Taylor drew a strict line between "planning" and "doing." According to Taylor, the power of decision making should be removed from the "manual workers" to the extent it is possible. Rather, this power should be left to supervisors and managers.

Taylor's Four Principles

Taylor acknowledged that allowing workers to exercise judgment and take on their own initiatives could improve productivity when the right incentives were provided. However, he maintained that such a management model was still inferior to a model where it was determined via scientific research how the job would be performed in the best way (i.e., a scientific model). Consistent with this belief system, Taylor emphasized the adherence to the following four principles as a way to improve productivity:

1. Replace rule-of-thumb work methods with methods based on a scientific study of the tasks.
2. Scientifically select, train, and develop each worker rather than passively leaving them to train themselves.
3. Cooperate with the workers to ensure that the scientifically developed methods are being followed.
4. Divide work nearly equally between managers and workers, so that the managers apply scientific management principles to planning the work and the workers actually perform the tasks.

In practice, adherence to these principles and scientific findings often meant that people were charged with monotonous and repetitive tasks, such as standing on an assembly line. This type of effect was satirized in the Charlie Chaplin’s film Modern Times.

 

Questions to Consider

Taylor's view that the room for individual decision making among workers should be minimized to the extent possible presumes that their judgment and creativity plays a very limited role in the pursuit of improved efficiency. There is no need for you to submit anything, but please think about these questions before proceeding:

• To what extent do you agree with Taylor’s view that efficient production is best carried out by removing the human element (e.g., individual judgment and creativity) and splitting up the production process into a set of repetitive tasks?
• It is, of course, possible to draw attention to the fact that many private sector entities produce standardized products by way of assembly lines (a significant portion of this type of production occurs abroad), but how do these processes apply to government, if at all?
• What drawbacks do you think might result from dividing production into a set of repetitive tasks?  
• What might be some drawbacks of not using individuals’ judgment and creativity? (For example, do individual workers lose track of why they are producing or providing a particular good or service?)
• Do you believe that this is an appropriate model for carrying out public programs? Why? Why not?
• As noted above, another belief of the scientific approach is that there is one best way of organizing and conducting tasks (which is determined scientifically). Do you agree with this belief, or are there multiple possible best approaches available?

Again, please note that you are not required to submit anything in response to the above questions. They are here to help you assess your understanding of the content and guide you toward learning new knowledge about the content.

If you want additional information about Taylor’s work you may, at your discretion, review the following link. It provides additional information about the scientific management movement and Taylor’s contributions to this movement: Scientific Management.