“Snow and Adolescence are the only two things that disappear if you ignore them long enough”
- Earl Wilson, former major league baseball pitcher
Adolescence is a very unique period of developmental time period that for all of us included significant changes in biological, social, and cognitive dimensions. For example, experiences such as going through the pubertal growth spurt, initiation to dating, and re-evaluating aspects of our own identity probably evoked feelings of anxiety and fear, but also excitement and accomplishment. Yet whether the overall experience was positive or negative, we could always count on this time period eventually coming to an end for us – but when exactly? Or more simply, when were we even sure it had even really started? Was it truly one specific trigger or a number of changes? What boundaries between childhood and adolescence as well as between adolescence and adulthood make the most sense to you, based on your experiences?
“I guess this is part of being an adolescent. It’s all about trying to find yourself (no emo jokes intended). I am currently on a massive journey-no, hunt- doing just that. I wish I saw everything a lot clearer so this would be easier to sort though.”
“One part of being an adolescent is negotiating the transition from being a child, most of the features of whose lives are determined by parents, to being an adult, who is responsible for him- or herself. When you’re a child, you don’t have to take responsibility for the really big decisions. Your parents may put you in charge of feeding the dog or cleaning your room, but they will typically not allow you to decide whether to drop out of school, or to train full-time to be an Olympic athlete, or to stow away on a ship bound for South America (as I once tried to do. I didn’t get very far.)”
“I’m lost between begin an adolescent and an adult. I’m lost between college and graduate school. I’m lost between wanting to be young and knowing how important it is to appear like an adult. I’m lost between professions and grad degrees. I’m lost between wanting life to be religiously meaningful and not wanting to think about anything that maybe doesn’t exist. I’m lost between hook-ups and marriage. I’m lost between work and play.”
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Introduction
Defining Adolescence
Most likely, similar to the comments above made by teens of various ages on internet blogs (Feldman 2008), you found it difficult to really answer these questions based on individual markers. Additionally, if we were to take a look at the responses to this question across the entire class, I bet we would find quite a bit of variety in answers as well. Thus, it probably won’t come as a surprise to you that if we take a look in the literature, theorists and researchers have yet to reach a unanimous decision on how to exactly define adolescence either (Steinberg, 2008).
Keeping this in mind, here is a list of the more common characteristics for defining the initiation and completion of adolescence, based on various perspectives found in the literature:
The Chronological Perspective: refers to describing adolescence based on reaching particular ages. From my experience, most researchers utilized this perspective to define the time period of adolescence, as it tends to be one of the most concrete and easily measurable approaches. However, the argument then becomes: what should be the accepted age range of this time period? For example, Steinberg (2008) refers to adolescence as encompassing the second decade of life (from 10-20 years of age), but not everyone agrees on this demarcation (Santrock, 2008). Adding to the confusion, many researchers divide adolescence even further, describing an “early” versus “middle” versus “late” stage of adolescent development. As you’ve probably already guessed, the assignment of exact age ranges for these categories is also quite varied. Finally, some researchers have even gone to describe the edges of adolescence as separate distinct periods of development that are uniquely different than adolescence itself. For example (as we’ll discuss in lesson 3) some researchers feel that by the late teens we’ve entered into a distinctly different period of development that is no longer adolescence, but is not quite adulthood. This transitional period has been referred to by researchers as emerging adulthood (Arnett, 2000). At the other end of the age range, you’ve probably heard the term “tweens” used to describe roughly ages 9-12 who are considered to be between childhood and being a teenager. Needless to say, as you read through the various articles and pieces of information keep in mind that not all researchers use the same chronological boundaries when describing adolescence.
The Biological Perspective implies that the beginning and ending of adolescence follows the development and completion of certain biological markers. For example (as we’ll discuss in lesson 2) some researchers analyze the development of certain puberty-related changes (such as pubic hair growth or breast development) while others look at hormone levels (e.g. changes in testosterone) or changes in brain development to describe adolescence and its boundaries. However, as with the chronological perspective, there are definitely some disagreements and concerns with this perspective as well. For example, what should the exact biological markers included? What is the appropriate ordering of these markers? Who should be analyzing these markers and are there actual differences between raters (e.g. between self-ratings and physician-ratings) on these markers (Dorn, Susman, & Ponirakas, 2003).
The Cognitive Perspective deals with defining adolescence based on mental abilities. For example, you probably remember hearing about Jean Piaget and his theory of cognitive development from an Introductory Psychology course. According to Piaget, one of the differentiating markers between child and adolescent thinking is the ability to practice hypothetical deductive reasoning as well as using other elements of abstract thinking. As we’ll discuss in the 3rd and 4th lesson, you’ll see that there are a great deal of cognitive markers we can use to differentiate children and adolescents in the realm of mental processing. You’ll also find that while these advancements have their benefits, there can be some pitfalls as well. In these lessons we’ll also discuss the “mental pitfalls” of cognitive development for adolescents and their implications on behavior and future development.
Critical thinking abilities that develop during adolescence help significantly with multiple tasks, such as planning ahead multiple moves and what the potential responses may be of the opponent in a chess match
The Education Perspective: relates to the transitions through various school systems. For most, adolescence includes moving from a primary to a secondary school system, such as a middle school or junior high school. The end of the period usually refers to completion/graduation from high school. While this appears to be a simplistic model to defining adolescence and its boundaries, we know that not everyone follows the same educational trajectory. Additionally, within this system there is a large amount of disagreement on what should be taught at the various levels to help prepare adolescents for the adult world. We’ll discuss these issues and others related to the education perspective particularly in the 9th and 10th lessons.
The Cultural Perspective: In a number of cultures the transition through adolescence and into adulthood often includes the preparation and completion of a distinct ceremonial rite of passage. In more traditional societies, this ceremony usually corresponds with a biological marker such as menarche (first menstruation) in girls. With boys, the ritual is less likely to focus on a biological marker and is more likely to involve demonstrations of courage, strength, and endurance (Arnett, 2007). For example, in the Yatmul Tribe of New Guinea male youth must endure a number of events testing the vary boundaries of their being to become a man. Over the course of a number of days they must endure psychological (such as having male elders rub their genitals on them), physical (breaking into the male hut while male elders throw volleys of spears and rocks at them), as well as constitutional (extensive scarification of their entire bodies) trials.
Examine the link to learn more about the Yatmul rite of passage for male adolescents
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Introduction
Defining Adolescence - (Continued)
The Social Perspective focuses on the changes of interpersonal relationships when comparing children to adolescents to adults. Additionally, this perspective examines how society views this time period of development, is it a time of participation in society or a time of preparation for adult roles? When they become an adult, what are the status changes for the individual? For example, do you remember when you were first allowed to vote? When you began paying taxes? Or as my parents joked with me when I turned 18, that I was now an adult and could be tried in a court of law as one, just like the rest of the adult world. Thus, some definitions of adolescence include the criterion of being treated as an adult and allowing them to have the rights (and responsibilities) of an adult within the society as the upper boundary for the time period (Rice & Dolgin, 2005). You’ll find that in lesson 6 we’ll focus on the various status changes associated with becoming adult, including the benefits and responsibilities expected with these changes. Also, we’ll describe the historical course of how society has modified its view on this period of development. Finally, you'll also find elements of this perspective discussed in various other lessons, such as the sections on peers, intimacy, and family.
The Individualization Perspective incorporates changes in identity and how we see ourselves. Additionally, this perspective focuses on issues of moral development and autonomy. Establishment of autonomy essentially reflects your ability to think and act independently as well as taking responsibility for your actions. Thus, the individualization perspective might conclude that adolescence is a time span when we struggle to discover who we are and become self-sufficient behaviorally, emotionally, and morally.
Perspective
When Adolescence Begins
When Adolescence Ends
Chronological
Attainment of a designated age (e.g. 10 years)
Attainment of a designated age (e.g. 21 years)
Biological
Onset of puberty
Becoming capable of sexual reproduction
Cognitive
Emergence of more advanced reasoning abilities
Consolidation of advanced reasoning abilities
Educational
Entrance into junior high school
Completion of formal schooling
Cultural
Entrance into period of training for ceremonial right of passage
Completion of a ceremonial rite of passage
Social
Beginning of training for adult work, family and citizen roles
Full attainment of adult status and privileges
Individualization
Emergence of attempt to discover who we are as an individual and be more self-sufficient
Reaching a level of self-sufficiency and understanding of who we are as a person
Table modified from Steinberg (2008).
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Conclusion
In summary, there is no universally accepted definition of when adolescence begins or when it ends. Some studies choose to focus on markers surrounding legal status; others will focus on chronological age or may refer to physical changes such as puberty or some combination of factors. However, researchers generally agree that this time period entails a lengthy process where the individual is moving from an immature status of childhood to a mature status of adulthood, during which they experience significant development in a number of these dimensions to prepare them for their future role as adults (Larson & Wilson, 2004).
Ask yourself:Did the boundaries you came up with fit into one (or more) of the perspectives outlined? Which one(s)? If not, can you think of an alternate perspective that would best describe your experiences?
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References
Arnett, J. J. (2000). Emerging Adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55, 469-480.
Arnett, J. J. (2007). Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach (3rd edition). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Dorn, L.D., Susman, E.J., & Ponirakis, A. (2003). Pubertal Timing and Adolescent Adjustment and Behavior: Conclusions Vary by Rater. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 32, 157-167.
Feldman, R. S. (2008). Adolescence. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Larson, R., & Wilson, S. (2004). Adolescence across place and time: Globalization and pathways to adulthood. In R. Lerner & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (2nd edition, pp. 299-331). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Rice, F. P., & Dolgin, K. G. (2008). The Adolescent: development, relationships and culture (12th edition). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.
Santrock, J. W. (2008). Adolescence (12th edition). New York, NW: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
Steinberg, L. (2008). Adolescence (8th edition). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
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