Defining Motivation

These quotes give us a sense of what it is to experience work motivation, but scientists are interested in a more precise definition. The word "motivation" is derived from the Latin movere, meaning "to move." The simplest definition of motivation is that it is a force acting on or within a person that "moves" the person to behave in a particular manner. Notice that this energetic force can come from within (intrinsic motivation) as well as from outside (extrinsic motivation) of an individual. When people are intrinsically motivated, they are influenced by internal and self-administered factors (e.g., feeling of accomplishment, enjoying what you do). When people are extrinsically motivated, they are influenced by external factors that are controlled by others (e.g., money, praise, or avoid negative consequences) (Deci & Ryan, 1985).

Because it is such a broad and complex concept, there are as many specific definitions of motivation as there are thinkers who have considered the nature of human behavior, each emphasizing different aspects of motivation (e.g., physiology, rationality, unconscious/subconscious motives, and/or emotionality). Nevertheless, organizational scientists agree on its basic characteristics.

A definition of motivation utilized by many Industrial/Organizational psychologists is "those psychological processes involved with the arousal, direction, intensity, and persistence of voluntary actions that are goal directed" (Mitchell, 1997, p. 60). Notice that motivation deals with voluntary behavior that is under the control of an individual and not situations where a person is being forced to behave in a certain way. According to this definition, a comprehensive understanding of motivation requires an integration of four factors:

1. Arousal deals with the energy behind our actions and what compels a person to do something in the first place. It is what gets behavior started. For example, individuals may be guided by their interest in making a good impression on others, meeting a sales quota, or earning an "A" in a course.


2. Direction implies that motivated behavior has a purpose and is directed toward achieving specific goals. It deals with the choice to expend effort. Where will you focus or direct your efforts? Do you go to work or call in sick? Do you watch TV or complete the next lesson in your World Campus course?


3. Intensity deals with the choice of level of effort to expend. How much effort will you give to the task at hand? You can daydream on the job or give that report you are working on your undivided attention. You can study with maximal attentiveness (actively process the information, ask yourself questions about the material) or minimal attentiveness (skim the material in a cursory manner).


4. Persistence or duration refers to the continuing or sustaining engagement in a behavior over time. How long do you work at a task? It is one thing to start out with high arousal and intensity on a task, but how long will you keep up the effort? How easily do you give up? Abraham Lincoln failed in business in 1831; could not get into law school in 1832; went bankrupt in 1833; had a nervous breakdown in 1836; and lost elections in 1838, 1840, 1843, 1848, 1849,1854, 1856, and 1858. Yet, in 1860, he was elected as president of the United States and is widely regarded as one of the greatest public figures of all time. Now that's persistence!

In summary, motivation generally refers to the combined effect of these four elements (Pinder, 1998). To use an analogy, arousal can be viewed as the engine of a car, direction is like the steering wheel, intensity is how hard you push on the accelerator, and persistence is how long you travel (Greenberg & Baron, 2008). As you can see, motivation requires all four components.

Let's go back to the opening questions of "How do you know if someone is motivated?" and "How do you know if someone is NOT motivated?" Motivation researchers examine individuals' choices (direction), effort level (intensity), biological responses (arousal), and persistence. By observing these dimensions, we can draw some conclusions about the impact of motivation on employees' behavior. Obviously, there are a plethora of factors that affect effort, choice, and persistence. We will address some of these antecedents later in this lesson.