PSYCH484:

Lesson 1: Introduction to Work Motivation and Job Attitudes

Reading Assignments

• Lessson Commentary


• Gittins (2007)

Learning Goals

After successfully completing this lesson, you will be able to accomplish the following objectives.

• Define motivation and differentiate between arousal, direction, intensity, and persistence.


• List and explain the characteristics of motivation.


• Describe the components of the global model of performance and how they are combined.


• Differentiate between the two audiences of motivation theory.

Key Terms

intrinsic motivation	arousal
intensity	hypothetical construct
extrinsic motivation	direction
persistence

Introduction

Motivation is one of the most important topics in fields like psychology and human resources because it is the key to understanding many types of behavior in organizations. It is a buzzword used in virtually all work settings, and countless "selfhelp" books have been published about the topic. Many Americans admit to doing the minimum to keep their jobs, and surveys of worker attitudes reveal that many employees could work harder if they really wanted to do so---they just don't want to. From the organizational side, many companies do not do a good job of motivating and retaining their best performers, and a significant percentage of the workforce in many companies is actively looking for a new job at any given time. Yet, when managers properly motivate their employees, performance, satisfaction, and morale can improve dramatically.

Why do people do what they do? Why are certain individuals driven to perform well, whereas others do not care to work hard towards a task? How can organizations encourage employees to come to work and perform efficiently and effectively when they are on the job? How can companies prevent employees from engaging in behaviors that can get in the way of organizational success (e.g., absenteeism, being late to work, stealing on the job)? These are all questions that have to do with work motivation and job attitudes. Here at the beginning of the course, we will be focusing on work motivation.

Defining Motivation

These quotes give us a sense of what it is to experience work motivation, but scientists are interested in a more precise definition. The word "motivation" is derived from the Latin movere, meaning "to move." The simplest definition of motivation is that it is a force acting on or within a person that "moves" the person to behave in a particular manner. Notice that this energetic force can come from within (intrinsic motivation) as well as from outside (extrinsic motivation) of an individual. When people are intrinsically motivated, they are influenced by internal and self-administered factors (e.g., feeling of accomplishment, enjoying what you do). When people are extrinsically motivated, they are influenced by external factors that are controlled by others (e.g., money, praise, or avoid negative consequences) (Deci & Ryan, 1985).

Because it is such a broad and complex concept, there are as many specific definitions of motivation as there are thinkers who have considered the nature of human behavior, each emphasizing different aspects of motivation (e.g., physiology, rationality, unconscious/subconscious motives, and/or emotionality). Nevertheless, organizational scientists agree on its basic characteristics.

A definition of motivation utilized by many Industrial/Organizational psychologists is "those psychological processes involved with the arousal, direction, intensity, and persistence of voluntary actions that are goal directed" (Mitchell, 1997, p. 60). Notice that motivation deals with voluntary behavior that is under the control of an individual and not situations where a person is being forced to behave in a certain way. According to this definition, a comprehensive understanding of motivation requires an integration of four factors:

1. Arousal deals with the energy behind our actions and what compels a person to do something in the first place. It is what gets behavior started. For example, individuals may be guided by their interest in making a good impression on others, meeting a sales quota, or earning an "A" in a course.


2. Direction implies that motivated behavior has a purpose and is directed toward achieving specific goals. It deals with the choice to expend effort. Where will you focus or direct your efforts? Do you go to work or call in sick? Do you watch TV or complete the next lesson in your World Campus course?


3. Intensity deals with the choice of level of effort to expend. How much effort will you give to the task at hand? You can daydream on the job or give that report you are working on your undivided attention. You can study with maximal attentiveness (actively process the information, ask yourself questions about the material) or minimal attentiveness (skim the material in a cursory manner).


4. Persistence or duration refers to the continuing or sustaining engagement in a behavior over time. How long do you work at a task? It is one thing to start out with high arousal and intensity on a task, but how long will you keep up the effort? How easily do you give up? Abraham Lincoln failed in business in 1831; could not get into law school in 1832; went bankrupt in 1833; had a nervous breakdown in 1836; and lost elections in 1838, 1840, 1843, 1848, 1849,1854, 1856, and 1858. Yet, in 1860, he was elected as president of the United States and is widely regarded as one of the greatest public figures of all time. Now that's persistence!

In summary, motivation generally refers to the combined effect of these four elements (Pinder, 1998). To use an analogy, arousal can be viewed as the engine of a car, direction is like the steering wheel, intensity is how hard you push on the accelerator, and persistence is how long you travel (Greenberg & Baron, 2008). As you can see, motivation requires all four components.

Let's go back to the opening questions of "How do you know if someone is motivated?" and "How do you know if someone is NOT motivated?" Motivation researchers examine individuals' choices (direction), effort level (intensity), biological responses (arousal), and persistence. By observing these dimensions, we can draw some conclusions about the impact of motivation on employees' behavior. Obviously, there are a plethora of factors that affect effort, choice, and persistence. We will address some of these antecedents later in this lesson.

Characteristics of Motivation

We will now address several characteristics of motivation that will give us a more complete picture of the nature of this complex concept.

1. Motivation is a hypothetical construct (Kanfer, 1990).

   What this means is that we cannot see or feel motivation directly because it is an internal state that exists within the individual. Some of the variables that I/O psychologists study are objective, quantifiable, and tangible (the number of absences, turnover, how many reports an employee wrote), but there are also constructs that are not as clear-cut in terms of measurement (e.g., motivation, satisfaction, commitment). To use an analogy, motivation is a bit like gravity in that we cannot see or feel it, but its effects are clear (e.g., jumping over a cliff) (Jex & Britt, 2008).

2. Motivation is an inferred state.

   This point is related to the first one. Because motivation is a hypothetical construct, it cannot be directly measured, but its existence is inferred from effects, by-products, and behaviors that can be observed. Essentially, what this means is that we can never measure motivation perfectly. Because it is a construct that has to be assessed indirectly from what we see, there will always be some error in our measurement attempts.

   One of the complexities in measuring motivation is that motives may appear in disguised form. In addition, any single act may express several different motives. The movie Chariots of Fire portrays the lives of Eric Liddell and Harold Abrahams. These two men were members of the British track team, exhibited a strong drive to excel, and each won a gold medal in the 1924 Olympics. However, their motives were quite different. Liddell felt God's pleasure when he ran and wanted to serve and glorify God through his physical ability. On the other hand, Abrahams competed to prove his self-worth and overcome anti-Semitism. This example demonstrates that similar behavior may reflect vastly different motives. However, similar motives may also be expressed in different behavior. The need to achieve may be directed toward high academic performance, quickly climbing the corporate ladder, or winning sporting events. The topic of motivation is complex, indeed!

   Southwest Airlines, Chic-fil-A, and AptarGroup are known to have highly motivated workforces. How is this known? As highlighted by McNerney (1996) in his descriptions of the three companies, high motivation- which cannot be directly observed- is inferred from low turnover, high employee productivity, and profitability- which can all be directly measured. While these may be perceived as reasonable indicators, it should be noted that they are not perfect indicators of motivation. For example, with regard to turnover, employees may not be motivated but may still remain on the job because the economy is down and they may not be able to find comparable jobs elsewhere. Likewise, employees may be extremely motivated but have to leave their jobs because their spouses have been transferred. Therefore, turnover is an imperfect indicator of motivation. Similarly, in spite of highly motivated employees who exert a great deal of effort in their jobs, a company may not turn a profit in a given year because of a downturn in the economy or a ruthless competitor. Again, corporate profitability is also an imperfect indicator of motivation. According to the definition of motivation discussed above, effort expenditure and persistence on a task would more closely assess motivation, but our measurement of these behaviors would also be imperfect.

3. Motivation is multifaceted.

   Motivation encompasses cognition, affect, behavior, as well as situational influences. First, motivation involves cognition or aspects like thinking, judging, interpreting, understanding, and perceiving. For example, motivational processes often involve setting goals, coming up with strategies to meet those goals, and comparing where you are to where you want to be. Many of the theories of motivation that we will examine will emphasize cognition. Second, motivation also involves affect (emotion, feelings). There is the sense of loving what you do and being excited about your work when motivation is high and feeling disappointment and frustration when motivation is low. Motivation also encompasses conation or behavior. As we discussed above, motivation is evidenced by observable behaviors- willing, striving, effort expenditure. Lastly, situational influences such as the people around you, the type of work space, or the weather can impact one's motivation.

4. Motives are dynamic and often conflicting.

   The workplace would be much more predictable if motives did not change over time, but this is not the case. What motivates an employee today may not have the same effect on that employee three months down the road or next year. Daycare benefits and time off may be more motivating to younger employees, but retirement benefits and a sense of accomplishment in one's work may be more motivating to older employees. When the economy changes for the worse, a job that was perceived as dissatisfying and unmotivating may suddenly become valued in the eyes of a worker.

   In addition, individuals may have several different motives operating at once, and sometimes, these motives may conflict. A student may want to enjoy their favorite TV program, but may also want to study in order to achieve a better grade on the next test. Employees may be motivated to spend more time with their children, but may also be motivated to take work home in order to please the boss. Which motive will win out? The answer to this question depends on a number of different factors, which we will address in this course.

5. There are individual differences in motivation.

   Not only are there within-person differences in motivation (a particular individual may experience conflicting motives or motives that change over time), but there are also between-person differences in motivation (on any given task, some individuals will be lazy and others ambitious). What motivates one person is not what motivates another person. One worker may enjoy working in groups, whereas another worker may prefer to work individually. One employee may be strongly motivated by recognition and praise, whereas another employee may be strongly motivated by cash bonuses. As you can imagine, these differences make a manager's job quite challenging and speak to the need to treat employees individually as opposed to using a "one motivational plan will work for all" approach.

Global Model of Performance

Now that we have defined motivation and discussed its characteristics, it is important to put this complex construct into a framework that we will continue to draw from throughout the course.

The following formula depicts performance as the multiplicative function of ability, motivation, and opportunity (Vroom, 1964):

Let us examine each component of the model in turn. First, ability refers to the capacity for performing certain tasks. Do you have the skills necessary to be successful on the job? Second, motivation refers to the willingness to expend effort. Do you want to be successful on the job? Notice that both ability and motivation are needed for performance. As an instructor, I frequently see students who have considerable ability come into the University with high SAT scores, but have low motivation for being a student. They may be in college because their parents insisted that they go and not because they have an internal drive to be there for themselves. As a result, they do not participate in class regularly, turn assignments in late or not at all, and cram for exams the night before. Being a successful college student involves more than just being smart- you also have to exert effort and demonstrate persistence over time in order to perform well.

On the flip side, I also see highly motivated students who participate in class, keep up with the readings, ask questions about the material, and may even demonstrate an interest in pursuing Industrial/Organizational psychology for their career. However, some of these students do not earn an "A" in the course. Why? They do not do well on the exams because they do not test well or have not developed effective study skills (low ability). Again, the point is that both ability and motivation are necessary for effective performance.

In addition to ability and motivation, a person also has to be given the opportunity to perform. Star basketball players (high ability) who live to play the game (high motivation) will not be able to reach their goals if they are on the bench all the time (no opportunity). I sometimes come across individuals who are smart and who would love to attend college, but the opportunity is not available to them (lack of funds, needing to work full-time in order to take care of ill parents, etc.). Another way to consider opportunity is the absence of situational constraints, which are factors in the environment that hinder performance. For example, a carpenter without tools cannot be productive, despite high ability and motivation. Different types of obstacles can exist: job-induced (e.g., lack of training, equipment, or software), administrative (e.g., lack of financial support or time), environmental (e.g., excessive noise, hazards), or interpersonal (e.g., lack of cooperation from co-workers, communication breakdowns) (Steel & Mento, 1986).

An important implication of the global model of performance is that motivation and performance are not synonymous. Let us go back to the introductory question, "How do you know if someone is or is not motivated?" According to the global model, "high performance" would not be an accurate way to assess motivation because performance depends on other factors in addition to motivation (ability, absence of constraints in the environment). Performance refers to the successful accomplishment of work-related goals, despite how they were achieved. A common error is to attribute poor performance to a lack of motivation. However, just because someone performs a task poorly does not mean that he or she did not put forth a great deal of effort. Sales managers may experience a slump in monthly sales because of stiffer competition (situational constraint) or because they are not fully trained on their product line (low ability).

Another implication of the global model of performance refers to its multiplicative nature. If any of the components of the model are zero, then performance will be zero. If a person has no musical ability, all the motivation and opportunity in the world will not make him or her an exemplary musician.

To summarize, maximal performance occurs when individuals have high ability, high motivation, and an environment that is supportive of such behavior (Muchinsky,2000).

Factors Affecting Motivation

Table 1.1 lists three primary categories of variables that influence work motivation.

First, individual characteristics refer to what an employee brings to the work situation (e.g., needs, attitudes, and interests).

Second, job characteristics refer to what an employee does at work (e.g., boring versus stimulating work, doing the same thing over and over versus having variety in the work).

Third, work environment characteristics refer to what happens to an employee at work (e.g., rewards for work, how they get along with the boss and co-workers).

Clearly, each is an important contributor to motivation. An employee may have a positive attitude toward their job and find their work interesting, but their motivation may decline because their pay is not competitive or because they do not get along with co-workers. Although this framework does not provide an exhaustive listing of the factors that influence work motivation, it does help to depict important categories of variables that we will be discussing throughout the course.

I. Individual Characteristics	II. Job Characteristics	III. Work Environment Characteristics
Interests Attitudes toward self toward job toward aspects of the work situation Needs security social achievement	Types of intrinsic rewards Degree of autonomy Amount of direct performance feedback Degree of variety in tasks	Immediate work environment peers supervisor(s) Organizational actions reward practices system wide rewards individual rewards organizational climate

Table 1.1 Variables affecting the motivational process in organizational settings Source: Steer, R. M., & Porter, L. W. (1991). Motivation and work behavior (5th edition). New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc, p. 20. Derived from Porter & Miles, 1974

Theories of Motivation (7 of 10)

Theories of Motivation

Many theories of work motivation have emerged. As you may have gleaned from our discussion about the complexity and multidimensional nature of motivation, there are no laws or solid facts pertaining to human behavior in the same way that there are laws of nature. Instead, there are many different theories of motivation, each of which focuses on different aspects. This is good in that they collectively expand our understanding, but a curse in the sense that they make the likelihood of a single, comprehensive theory of motivation remote.

As we will see throughout the course, each theory has something to offer but is also limited. An important part of our discussion will be to evaluate and compare theories and understand how each contributes to a more complete understanding of work motivation. Some theories will be discussed in terms of historical interest, whereas others are currently more popular. For each theory, we will consider the source of motivation, the components of the theory, research support, organizational interventions, and strengths and weaknesses.

The theories of motivation that we will address in the course are listed as follows:

• Need Theories: What do I want when I work?


• Reinforcement Theory: What are the rewards for my work?


• Cognitive Theories: Equity, Expectancy, and Goal Setting: What thoughts motivate me?


• Self-Efficacy and Social Cognitive Theory: Do I think that I can succeed in my work?


• Intergroup Theories: Social Identity, Social Dominance, and Integrated Threat: How do the people around me influence me?


• Control Theory: How do I regulate my behavior?


• Job Design: Do I find my work interesting and challenging?

 

Audiences of Motivation Theory (8 of 10)

Audiences of Motivation Theory

There are two primary audiences of motivation theory: researchers and practitioners. Researchers are behavioral scientists whose goal is to examine the validity of theories by designing rigorous empirical tests. One of the reasons why theories are useful is that they go beyond description and prediction and help get at explanation (Why are people who receive less than they feel they deserve displeased?). In contrast, the main goal of practitioners is to use theory to help solve existing organizational problems such as absenteeism, turnover, low productivity, and employee theft. Whereas researchers emphasize validity, practitioners emphasize utility.

Ideally, science and practice should work together. Science should provide the foundation for organizational interventions that are based on theories that have been rigorously tested. If no theories were available, managers' motivational attempts would be rather random or based on personal views of the world. In addition, researchers should be aware of organizational realities so that they develop theories and methods that will be applicable to current problems faced by organizations. In the words of Kurt Lewin, "there is nothing so practical as a good theory." Unfortunately, a synergistic relationship between science and practice does not always occur. Practitioners criticize researchers as being too "ivory tower," and researchers criticize practitioners for not caring enough about rigorous science. As you will see from the business periodicals, newspaper articles, and journal articles, practitioners and researchers also speak different languages, as evidenced by the diverse writing styles. Some theories of motivation that have fallen out of favor with researchers are popular among managers and vice versa.

Rather than taking an "either/or" approach in this course, we will adopt a "both/and" approach by examining each theory from a science as well as practice perspective. That is, we will address theoretical questions (e.g., What motivates people and why?) as well as applied questions (e.g., How can this knowledge be put to practical use?). In keeping with the scientist-practitioner model of Industrial/Organizational psychology, we will study how sound scientific research is applied to issues faced by managers in attempting to motivate their employees.

References (9 of 10)

References

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum.

Gittins, R. (2007, September 10). It takes more than money to make the world go round; MONDAY COMMENT. Sydney Morning Herald, p. 21.

Greenberg, J., & Baron, R. A. (2008). Behavior in Organizations (9th edition). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Jex, S. M., & Britt, T.W. (2008). Organizational Psychology: A Scientist-Practitioner Approach (2nd edition). Somerset, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Kanfer, R. (1990). Motivation theory and industrial/organizational psychology. In M. D. Dunnette & L. M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (2nd edition, Vol. 1, pp. 75-170). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

McNerney, D.J. (1996). Creating a motivated workforce. HR Focus, 73, 1, 4-6.

Mitchell, T. R. (1997). Matching motivational strategies with organizational contexts. Research in Organizational Behavior, 19, 57-149.

Muchinsky, P.M. (2000). Psychology applied to work: An introduction to industrial and organizational psychology (6th edition). Belmont, CA, US: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.

Pinder, C. C. (1998). Work motivation in organizational behavior. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Steel & Mento (1986). Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 37, 254-265.

Steers, R. M., & Porter, L. W. (1991). Motivation and work behavior (5th edition). New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. (Chapter 1, p. 20).

Vroom, V.H. (1964). Work and motivation. Oxford, England: Wiley.

Assignments (10 of 10)

Lesson 1 Assignments

There is one graded assignment for this lesson. Please see the course syllabus for detailed requirements for the assignment.

1. Weekly Discussion Board: Proceed to the Lesson 1 Discussion Board.