PAM WOLFE: Let's take a look at measuring behavior. In order to accurately measure that behavior we've got to collect data. This is something that really drives me crazy when I'm doing consulting and I see behavior or data not taken. And I understand that it is a balancing act. You don't want to measure all behavior and take data on all things so that you're really interrupting your interaction with the student or your teaching. But you've got to at some point take data and accurately take that data.

So let's take a look at how that can be done. Data can be collected using various methods. I've got you some slides here of pictures of several ways that you can collect data that are very, very simple. You can use your stopwatch. Handheld portable data collectors, and those are really changing the face of things. Something as simple as an abacus-- to simply move it over-- and I've seen that used.

Some miscellaneous things. You can count paper clips, or buttons, or pennies. Move them from one dish to another. Very simple ways to do data collection, especially if it's something rapid. And we've got smartphone and iPad apps. We've given you some links that you can try out below the video for ideas related to that. So technology is really advancing in that. But you know you can use the good old penny counter if you need to.

Data that are taken need to be recorded on data collection forms or sheets. So you're watching the behavior. You need to transfer or keep that data collection on a data sheet. These sheets allow us to measure data according to the frequency, those durations, latency, or intensity that we might be interested in, those dimensions of behavior. So we might use a data sheet to show us how often, how long, the difference between a cue or response, or the intensity or force of a behavior.

This shows the numerical values of the occurrence of the behavior across several days, several trials, instances, however you want to do that. And there are many different types of data collection sheets, and they really exist based on the observation method. So a data sheet may look different if it's for a frequency recording than a duration, than a latency, or an intensity.

I'm going to show you some examples, different types of data collection sheets that can be used. And we've gotten these from the Alberto and Troutman book that's been updated significantly-- I think it's on its, maybe, eighth edition-- but these give you some good examples.

Here's an event, or frequency, data recording sheet. So you have the start time, stop time, and they've simply tally marked, given the total number of occurrences there. This was for behavior of inappropriate talk-outs with no hand raised. We've got another adaptive data recording sheet for frequency. With this one we've got different things that they're collecting data on, substitutions, mispronunciations, insertions, or repetitions in oral reading.

Here's an example of interval recording. And this is a little more sophisticated in that you've taken a length of time, and you've divided it up into intervals. So in this case we have intervals that are divided into 10 second increments. 10 seconds, 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60. And they simply have put a minus or plus if it occurred during that interval of time. And this is for on task, the eyes are on the paper or they're writing on the paper.

Here's an example of what we call a time sampling at a 10 minute interval. Time sampling, we simply look up at a certain point in time and see if the behavior is occurring. So I may have a 10 minute, 20 minute, 30 minute, 40, 50, and 60 minute. And I'm going to indicate with that looking up at a certain random point in time. Yep, they're on task. No, they're not on task. Or in this case, are walking around the room without permission. So a very quick and easy one, it's called a momentary time sampling.

Here we've got a data sheet for multiple students. Here we've got a round-robin format of interval recording. So we've got the first interval, we're going to look at Kate's behavior, then Michael's, then Harry's, and then Jodie's. Here we've got a recording on multiple behaviors using different kinds of codes, and you see the codes at the top. H means hitting. T means talking. P means pinching.

Here you see an example of a data form for latency and duration. You see on here time elapsed before taking seat. What we've got there is the latency, how long it takes them to get to that seat. And then we have duration on the other side. Time spent in the bathroom. How long is that? It could be inappropriately long. You don't need to know these specific data collection sheets. I simply wanted you to get an example of how data can be taken on different types of sheets, and knowing that data collection forms will vary based on the behavior you're looking at.

Now there are some problems with data collection sheets. Without summarizing that data it's difficult to see the overall changes that are occurring. So I may only have one day's worth. I may even have just three days' worth. I can't really see an overall picture. It's difficult to make interpretations based on that data just by looking at the form. And that raw data ultimately needs to be graphed or charted in order to see the behavior changes. We've got to see the raw data put together so I can see change over time.

This is why we use graphs. This gives us a visual representation of large amounts of data that allow comparisons to be made over time. So I'm not just looking at Tuesday's. I might be looking at a month's worth, and I'm able to see it on a graph. This shows us how behavior changes over time. And really, it's the cornerstone of what we use in applied behavior analysis to show whether behavior occurs. I've indicated to you that we in ABA very infrequently use large data sets or group designs. Graphs-- line graphs-- are typically the way that we show that behavior has changed based on an intervention or procedure. So line graphs are very important.

Let's take a look at some examples of some graphs. And what I'm going to want from you on this is understanding the parts of a graph. They'll all vary based on instances of behavior, the student, the behavior itself. But let's take a look at this. This is an example of a general graph. We're able to see in the graph that the behavior really changes.

So we have in here that they're working on organized games. And this is looking at the number of aggressive incidents that the person has. In baseline we've got some jump, but we see some pretty high levels. They've given them organized games, and the behavior of aggression drops. They take them back to baseline, no games. Goes back up. They institute that organized game again, and the behavior goes down. So they've got some good evidence of a functional relationship. It seems that their organized game intervention has really affected the aggressive behavior of the student. See how we can see many days, many data points, that allow us to see an overall pattern.

Now looking at those parts of a graph, we've got what we call the horizontal axis, sometimes called the x-axis. This usually displays the time, and that time could be in days, dates, sessions, numbers, any difference. And generally, this increases from left to right. These are conventions that are typically used. I've also got the vertical axis. This is sometimes called the y-axis. This usually shows us the behavior, the measure of behavior. And it can be in any of those dimensions we've looked at-- frequency, duration, latency, and so on. Increases from the bottom to the top in equal intervals. All right. So 0, 20. 10, 20, 30, and so on. Any kind of interval that allows us to correctly or accurately see the data.

We've got our x-axis and y-axis. We've got our data points. These are plotted on the graph at points where the time value and the behavior value intersect. So I'm plotting my data. And each data point represents the measure of a behavior that was obtained for a given point in time. So it shows us something.

We've got what we call a data path. These are the lines that are used to connect those consecutive data points so that I get to see a pattern. It helps to show the way that the behavior is changing. I linked my lines together. And I look at a phase change line. This is a solid vertical line that extends from that x-axis to the top of the graph, and that's used to show major changes in the conditions under which the data is collected. So typically those lines represent changes in the intervention or the instruction method that I used. So that will let us see that.

Labels. Brief phrases used to tell the measurement. May also include words or brief phrases to name the different conditions or the phases. So we label things. We'll take a look at a graph for all of these. Figure legend. A brief statement that gives an overview of what that graph is depicting, so you know what you're looking at.

Benefits of this. It helps to detect the trends. Allows you to visualize the values of a large amount of data at one time. So again, you're not just seeing Tuesday. You've got maybe a month. Can be used to compare one group of data points with another. And makes it easier to share and communicate about your data. Other people can take a look at that graph and see the trends themselves.

So we're giving you several examples of line graphs, again from Alberto and Troutman. Let's take a look at those and see. We have our x-axis, that's along the bottom there, that shows our session. So it's listed in sessions. We're looking at a math group. We've got our y-axis, which is the number of instances of cursing that this individual has. And you'll notice that those have a numerical value in the number of instances. So they're taking a frequency, or an event recording here.

We've got our baseline. And then we have a line separating the conditions. The data points are not connected across that condition line, so we know exactly what's happening. We have Adam here. So he's in baseline, and then he's given timeout, which is the condition. And you'll see that the number of cursing goes down when the timeout procedure is implemented. All right. So parts of that graph.

Let's take another one. This is an example of transferring permanent product data, like a worksheet or other numbers, to a graph. So they've indicated on there the dates. And they've indicated along there-- the y-- the number of words per paragraph, given the dates. And so those are listed there. So permanent products, those worksheets that you use can be used that way.

Here we've got transferring of event data to a graph. This is that frequency recording. We've got Monday's and the instances, with the totals given. And then they simply graphed it.

Here we have transferring of interval data. That's when we marked differentiated-- different amounts of time throughout. You'll see those coded there and graphed. This is transferring time sampling to a graph. Remember that momentary time sample, when I looked up? Time sampling can be also that I look at the entire observation period here.

We've got comparison of plotting data points on line and cumulative graphs. So we've got occurrences there, session A and session B. I've got an example, another one of cumulative graphing. So I've looked at the lesson in John's performance and Sally's performance, and looking at it. We're looking at the number of effects that are mastered by the individual. I cumulatively put together our data, so we can see a lot amount of it on one graph. So graphs are our friends. That's something to remember. Again, you don't need to know the graphs or the specifics other than I want you to know the parts of that graph.

So we've got all of these behaviors when we might be looking at, what do we select for change? Well, in any case, we're going to be looking at adhering to ethical guidelines of the school, the community, of our profession. There are ethics that are involved in changing behaviors.

I remember people where I worked at a group home wanted to change a behavior of the individual smiling more. I thought, well that's just unethical. You shouldn't have to be smiling all the time. I don't smile all the time. So that's not an appropriate goal for change, to have the individual work on smiling more. It didn't seem socially valid to me. It didn't seem acceptable.

If we look at ethics, it's a principle of good or right conduct. And this is something that is somewhat subjective, but we've got some standards that govern our profession. And these were put out by different districts, put out by the state, and put out by associations like applied behavior analysts that look at specific conduct of their professionals. So we've got a system of moral principles or values, and we've got rules or standards that govern what we do.

I've said to you that the behaviors that you bring about for change need to be socially valid. Another way to say this is social acceptability. So really what does it look like? Is it appropriate for change? I didn't think the smiling-- getting that to happen more often-- was socially acceptable. I don't think it was socially valid.

We can determine what is socially valid by looking at a couple things. The subjective opinion of others. Ask me what I think. Go ask other teachers. How many smiles per hour should an individual have? Normative evaluation. Looking at what others do. And this is very frequently used, particularly with talk-outs and other things. Looking at what other children or other individuals are doing and comparing it.

So I gave you my example of my son Duncan who has behavior problems at the beginning of the year. And what the school psychologist did was she looked at his inattentiveness, but she also compared it to a typical eight-year-old who was sitting in circle time. So we had a normative evaluation. Most kids are not sitting there with zero instances of not getting distracted. So there's a normal amount of that, and we look at normative to compare that.

And then social impact measures, looking at whether or not it really changed. One thing that really, really strikes me is I've been watching-- reading about the helmet laws. Most of the states-- in fact, I don't know if all don't require motorcycle helmets to be put on. Social impact measures have shown that head injuries have gone up as a direct result of that helmet law being repealed. So that's social impact measure. We looked at the effect of head injuries on that. I'm still not changing always, but that's my bias.

There are models that help us look at social validity and asking some questions so we get a good perspective of it. Asking the following questions of individuals with the following perspectives. Were the goals, the procedures, and affects acceptable? So those are our questions. As judged by the consumer, the therapist, and society at large? Those are our perspectives we're going to look at.

Here's a nice graph or form from Gail Bernstein. It's an old one, but I think it's a really good one at looking at perspectives and questions we ask. So we ask our consumer, the individual with disabilities themselves; the therapist, which would be the teacher, parent, or others; and society at large, what does Joe Public think of this? And we ask whether the goals we've created are acceptable. Was our goal of increasing smiles acceptable? Would a goal of having an individual who is 19 stacking blocks be acceptable? No. Age inappropriate. Would not be an acceptable goal.

We also look at the procedures, how we implement it, whether that was acceptable. Did we do it in a manner that was discrete? I remember in my group home days, in some of my data collection early on-- I like to believe I've modified my behavior-- but I very openly collected data and wasn't at all discrete about it. Check marks, and everyone who was around me in an inclusive setting could see me doing that. I don't think the procedures that I used were always acceptable the way I implemented something.

And then the effects, or is the outcome acceptable? So if it's not fast enough and it has to be because you're working on an assembly line, if it's not accurate enough, if you're doing a task that requires accuracy, if that's not up to snuff, it's not socially valid. Right. So I give the example of individuals with severe, profound cognitive disabilities assembling a bike brake. And there were multiple parts to this brake. And they finally got them to do it. But it wasn't fast enough to keep up with the assembly line. So those effects were unacceptable. They could do it, but it took them three or four times longer, so it doesn't matter. It didn't allow them entry into their job.

So we're asking the consumer, the therapist, and society about the goals, what we choose to focus on; the procedures, how we implement it; and the effects or the outcome, asking ourselves whether those are socially valid. This gives you an idea of what you might focus on in terms of your behavioral objectives.

We have a practice activity for you here at the end. I want you to look at the graph on the following slide and indicate to me the components of that graph. I've given you a little word bank here. You've got to label the x-axis, the y-axis, the phase change line, the data point or the data path-- and the data path, excuse me-- and the phase label. So let's take a look at that graph and see how you do. Take a minute and look at this graph.

This is a figure for duration of time sitting appropriately at circle. So A is our y-axis. This gives us the behavior or the percentage of time sitting. Right. So we've got our increments of time there. What is B? That gives us a label, a phase change label. So we indicate on there that we have our baseline. We have our social story. And we have a baseline, and a social story, and maintenance. So that gives us our phase change.

What is C? This labels the sessions for the individual, and that is called the x-axis. The D is the phase change line. So we know when it occurred. We have baseline occurring for eight sessions, and then on number nine we have our intervention. We know when the phases occur.

And E? We have our data path. We've plotted those points there, and we've put the lines together, so we can see the way the data is going, the data path. So this is called a reverse design, reversal design. It's nice if you can do it. You can't always take away all behaviors, but you'll see on here that in baseline that we have it low. When they've implemented that social story it went up, the behavior of sitting. Baseline, dropped down again. Social story climbed back up, and then maintenance that I've done a little later in time shows that there was a little drop, but it's still on its way up. It's taking the path we want it to. So this is an example of the parts or components of that graph.

We have, again, a practice quiz for you to take that's located below the video.