SPLED462:

Lesson 1: Overview

 

To complete this lesson, please do the following things:

• Read Alberto Chapter 1.
• Read all content provided in this lesson.
• Watch all supporting videos provided.
• Complete all associated self-check activities, discussions, and assignments.

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Lesson 1 Objectives 

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to do the following things specified in the textbook:

• Outline the historical development of ABA.
• Identify types of behavior used in ABA.
• List the dimensions of ABA.
• Define "empiricism" and its role in ABA.
• List components of an ABC analysis.
• Define "behavioral terminology."

 

Behaviorism

 

Humans like predictability. We like to understand when, why, and how things happen. For decades, humans have tried to understand behavior. Why do some people gamble excessively? Why do people respond in traffic in certain ways (road rage or the predictable hand gestures)? Why do some people hit the elevator button multiple times even though it won’t make the elevator arrive any faster? If we understand behavior, we can change it, for better or worse. In this session, we’ll look at behavior from a specific lens—that of behaviorism. We’ll learn about the history of behaviorism, types of behavior, and some basic terms associated with applied behavior analysis (ABA). We’ll be learning about important dimensions/characteristics of what makes ABA unique—and why it’s useful. Let’s get started.

Interest in behavior permeates almost all facets of life. Business and industry, psychology, finance, and engineering fields need to understand behavior. Throughout time, various disciplines, particularly in psychology and education, have examined behavior through different lenses. One viewpoint of behavior is that of behaviorism. "Behaviorism" refers to the philosophy of the science of behavior. This means you can study behavior as a science; you can develop theories to look at behavior in predictable ways. Just as there are rules that guide chemistry and engineering, you can study and change behavior based on sound theory, too.

Terminology

A bit about terminology: there are lots of terms associated with the study of the science of behavior. You may hear terms such as behavior modification or ABA. The use of these terms can be confusing and may vary based on what field of study is using them. The term “behavior modification” was developed and used in the field of psychology. This term is not used as much anymore, as it tends to have negative connotations associated ("modification" sounds a bit more controlling). The term "applied behavior analysis" (ABA) is one we’ll be using to examine behavior. ABA is characterized by specific criteria that guide the theory. ABA widely is used in special education settings and in the education of persons with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). As we’ll talk about throughout the course, ABA and the techniques derived from the theory are the most effective ways to change the behavior of individuals with ASD.

 

Types of Behavior

When you look at behavior as a science, you see there are two types of behavior: respondent and operant. Let's take a look at them more closely.

Respondent Behavior

Respondent behavior looks at behavior in terms of a stimulus and response. The psychologist Pavlov highlighted the stimulus response theory. He showed that one could pair two stimuli together to bring a response under control of another stimulus. You’ll no doubt remember the classic experiments Pavlov conducted in which he paired a bell with the presentation of food to dogs. He showed that dogs, after repeated pairings of the bell and the food, would salivate in response to the bell alone (this same principle applies to me and chocolate . . . ). Respondent behavior, although interesting, typically only applies to behaviors that are reflexive. For example, I’ll blink if you spray a puff of air into my eye or, if you hit my knee with a hammer at the doctor’s office, my knee will jerk. These are reflexes that typically occur in all of us.

Operant Behavior

The second type of behavior is operant behavior. "Operant" refers to behavior that “operates” on the environment and is changed by the environment. Operant learning posits that new behavior is the result of the relationship between behavior and its consequences or what comes after the behavior. Almost all behavior of interest in education is operant behavior. We want to know more than about simple reflexes. We want to be able to change behavior, and we’re able to change behavior through operant learning. I may want to have my student sit in his/her seat longer without calling out; I may want all the children in my class to independently learn their vocabulary; or I may want to decrease the number of times I eat chocolate in the day. I can change these behaviors through operant learning. Operant learning is new behavior that results from the relationship between antecedents, behavior, and consequences. This often is called an “ABC” analysis.

Below you’ll find videos that further explain respondent and classical conditioning.

Respondent and Classical Conditioning

Nike Commercial

Operant Conditioning

ABC Analysis of Behavior

Let’s break the ABC analysis down. Operant learning says we can change behavior by first examining antecedents, or what happens before the behavior. You might already do this informally. For example, your student Mia may tantrum every time Pam walks into the door. You might begin thinking, “Wow, this behavior only occurs when Pam walks into the door.” You’ve already begun to link an antecedent (Pam walking in the door) with the behavior (Mia having a tantrum).

Our second step in operant learning is to identify the behavior itself. This sounds easy but can really be quite difficult. A lot of the difficulty hinges on how the behavior is described (we’ll get to that in a later lesson). We need to know exactly what behavior is elicited. If we’re interested in Mia’s tantrums, we need to describe exactly what a tantrum does and does not look like. For example, in Mia’s case, she throws herself down on the floor, she screams, and hits her head with her fists.

The third variable in operant learning is examining the consequences or what happens after the behavior. A consequence is anything that follows the behavior. It can be something that will increase the behavior we want to see (reinforcing someone for sitting in his/her seat) or something that will decrease the behavior (putting Mia’s behavior of tantruming on extinction).

Using the ABC Recording

As you saw from the examples on the previous page, there are lots of ways that teachers and others can arrange the antecedents and consequences to change a behavior. This makes teaching and learning so exciting! In Pia’s case, it’s easy to see that she shouldn’t just have yogurt. She’s managing to get out of eating anything solid by vomiting on the staff. As difficult as it sounds, the staff should not allow Pia to get out of eating solid food (escape the task). The staff might have to put up with some vomit (wearing plastic rain gear) so that Pia can be reinforced when she eats solid food. In Stewart’s case, we’d need to take some data and see whether his cussing behavior goes up or down when he is reprimanded. He might like the attention of the reprimand (it’s cool to make the teacher lose his temper) or really hate getting that attention (it’s embarrassing when everyone looks at him). In either case, we’d need to examine the consequence to determine how to decrease the cussing. We’ll be talking much more about the ways to develop a behavior plan using techniques in Lesson 6.

Please take a look at the data collection sheet to aid in identifying the antecedents, behaviors, and consequences. Again, we’ll be revisiting ABC analysis more.

ABC Data Sheet Example

Name:	Date:	Time:
Antecedent	Behavior	Consequence
Interruption/Transition	Crying	Physically guide to comply
Access denied	Whining	Ignored problem behavior
Wants something	Screaming	Count and mand procedure
Sensory reinforcement is valuable	Flopping	Block access to reinforcement
Demand @ table	Grabbing	Deny acces to reinforcer and physically guide to comply with demand
Demand at NET	Bolting	Escape extinction
MO is unclear/Out of the blue	Biting	Other
Other:	Hitting	Duration:
	Kicking
	Other

Roots of ABA

The field of ABA as a science has evolved over time—just as any science would. The first step in the development of ABA was experimental analysis of behavior. In this case, behavior was observed in tightly controlled experiments, typically in a laboratory setting. When we say “controlled settings,” we mean that the experimenter was able to decide everything that went on in the study. There was no background noise unless the experimenter wanted it; there were no interruptions to the task the student was doing unless that was of interest. However, as we all know, those perfect laboratory settings don’t always translate into the real world. How many times would you be in a classroom with no background noise (think other students talking, the intercom coming on) or interruptions (the occupational therapist coming in to get the student unexpectedly, other children asking questions)? If only it were that easy!

ABA centers on the practical, real-world application of using behavioral principles to produce changes in behaviors that are affecting people. One of its most useful aspects is that it is carried out in natural settings and has outcomes (dependent variables) that have practical significance—someone’s life is better as a result of the intervention. This is why ABA is so useful in the education field. The theory is about making changes in behavior in the real world where we need the changes to occur.

One pioneer researcher in the field of behaviorism is B.F. Skinner. Skinner was a psychologist who thought that Pavlov’s stimulus response (SR) theory did not go far enough. He began with the experimental analysis of behavior in the laboratory and then extended his research to real-world settings through the theory of ABA. Some believe that Skinner and ABA only centers on observable events (we have to see it). The ability to observe a behavior is indeed an important part of ABA, but Skinner also acknowledged that there are events going on “inside the skin” that one cannot see but most likely do influence behavior. The idea that private events are part of behaviorism is called “radical behaviorism.” It is called that because it was a “radical” departure of thought at the time and was an attempt to bring together internal and external events that affect behavior. Below, you’ll find some videos that discuss radical behaviorism. Remember that Skinner’s theories related to behavior were really a departure from the psychology field at the time (remember the id, ego, and super ego?).

Dimensions of ABA

In the 1960s (ABA is a relatively “young field”), a seminal article was published that outlined the dimensions of ABA. The seven dimensions are given in the table below. The article, published in 1968, is entitled “Some Current Dimensions of Applied Behavior Analysis” (Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968). These dimensions are current to this day and continue to define the discipline of ABA:

Please take a look at the chart of seven dimensions of ABA, along with examples and non-examples.

Self-Check Activity

Match each dimension of ABA to the appropriate example.
 

1. Cover your mouth when you cough.
2. Using an appropriate greeting.
3. Following a recipe.
4. Finish your chores; then you can play video games.
5. Each time I ignore Tim's talking out, it reduces the number of times he talks out.
6. Sally greets people appropriately in school, home, and church.
7. Johnny stopped using the f word after we taught him different responses.

• A. Behavioral
• B. Analytic
• C. Applied
• D. Conceptual
• E. Effective
• F. Generality
• G. Technological

 

Solution

Behavioral

Cover your mouth when you cough.

Analytical

Each time I ignore Tim's talking out, it reduces the number of times he talks out.

Applied

Using an appropriate greeting.

Conceptual

Finish your chores; then you can play video games.

Effective

Johnny stopped using the f word after we taught him different responses.

Generality

Sally greets people appropriately in school, home and church.

Technological

Following a recipe.

Reference:

Baer, D.M., Wolf, M.M., Risley, T.R. Some Current Dimensions of Applied Behavior Analysis (1968). Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 168, 1, 91-97.

Behavioral Explanations

When examining behavior as a science, terminology is needed. There are many terms that are used to describe how to change behavior and we’ll learn many of these terms throughout the course. However, there are some basic terms that illustrate the way that antecedents and consequences can be arranged to change behavior. We’ll be looking at the following terms: reinforcement, punishment, extinction, and shaping.

Reinforcement

Reinforcement is a relationship between a behavior and the consequence. Reinforcement always makes the behavior increase. There are two types of reinforcement: positive and negative. Something is considered positive when something is added in the environment and the effect on the behavior is increased. For example, I might praise a child for completing his work on time. Over time, I notice that the more I praise the child, the more the behavior of completing his work on time occurs. I have found that my praise is positively reinforcing for the student. Watch the following video below illustrating positive reinforcement:

In the case of negative reinforcement, something is taken away that makes the behavior increase. This usually occurs when one takes away something aversive or unpleasant. For example, when I take away home work for a child who is off task, I’ll likely see an increase in the off-task behavior (something I don’t want to see). Another example is taking away the obnoxious sound of the seatbelt bell in the car when you’ve finally buckled up. You’re likely to buckle your seat belt faster and more often because you want that sound to stop (be taken away).

It’s important to remember that reinforcement can only be defined by the effect it has on behavior. What you and I find reinforcing may be very different. The only way to see if it is reinforcing is to watch the behavior. The individual variation in what one finds reinforcing makes it critical that the teacher know what the student likes and does not like. One way to do this is through a reinforcer preference survey. The survey helps identify reinforcers by watching the student’s behavior when something is presented to them. One thing that I learned the hard way was that my verbal praise was not always reinforcing to some children. When I was working as a substitute teacher, I worked one day in a class of adolescent boys who were labeled as having behavioral issues. I automatically assumed that a great big, loud "GREAT JOB!" was going to make the student work harder. I quickly learned that the last thing the teenager wanted was my approval, much less very publicly.

Self-Check Activity

Match the following examples to either Positive (A) or Negative Reinforcement (B).

1. Every time the paper boy delivers the paper to my doorstep instead of throwing it on a wet yard, I give him a dollar. It's always at my door.
2. I get a bonus for removing deficiencies in teacher IEPs. I really work at this now.
3. Every 2 weeks, I get a paycheck, and I continue to go to work.
4. Marcus gives his daughter a high five every time she hits a ball. She gets better all of the time.
5. June gets $5 every time she cleans a bathroom. She loves cleaning now!
6. Whenever he whines, Sammy doesn't have to clean dishes. Mom doesn't ask him to do the dishes anymore.
7. As I drive home, it begins to rain, so I turn on my windshield wiper.
8. Zander loves microwaved soup. But, since he burned himself, he now wears oven mitts every time he takes the bowl out of the microwave.
9. My alarm clock makes an obnoxious noise that hurts my ears. Every morning, I hit the off button to stop the noise.

• A. Negative Reinforcement
• B. Positive Reinforcement

 

Solution

Negative Reinforcement

Whenever he whines, Sammy doesn't have to clean dishes. Mom doesn't ask him to do the dishes anymore

As I drive home, it begins to rain, so I turn on my windshield wiper.

Zander loves microwaved soup. But, since he burned himself, he now wears oven mitts every time he takes the bowl out of the microwave.

My alarm clock makes an obnoxious noise that hurts my ears. Every morning, I hit the off button to stop the noise.

Positive Reinforcement

Every time the paper boy delivers the paper to my doorstep instead of throwing it on a wet yard, I give him a dollar. It's always at my door.

I get a bonus for removing deficiencies in teacher IEPs. I really work at this now.

Every 2 weeks, I get a paycheck, and I continue to go to work.

Marcus gives his daughter a high five every time she hits a ball. She gets better all of the time.

June gets $5 every time she cleans a bathroom. She loves cleaning now!

Punishment

"Punishment" is a term that also describes the relationship between a behavior and a consequence. In the case of punishment, the behavior will decrease. There are two types of punishment: positive and negative. In the case of positive punishment, something is added that serves to decrease the behavior. An example of positive punishment might be when I require a student to write “I will not cheat on my test” 30 times. I’ve added the work of writing, and the effect will be to decrease the behavior of cheating (hopefully). For negative punishment, I am taking something away that will serve to decrease the behavior. For example, I might take away recess for a student who refuses to do a task. I have taken something away, and the effect will be to decrease the behavior of refusing to do a task. Just as in the case of reinforcement, punishment can only be defined by the effect it has on the behavior. What you and I find punishing may again be different. We have to watch the behavior to see whether it increases or decreases.

The video below shows an example of punishment (remember that’s the technical use of the ABA term).

Positive and Negative Reinforcement and Punishment

Below you’ll find some graphics explaining the relationship between positive and negative reinforcement and punishment.

 

 

 

Reinforcement vs. Punishment Video

Extinction

"Extinction" refers to an instance when a previously reinforced behavior is no longer reinforced. Many people think of this as “ignoring” a behavior. It is close but, again, we have to use the ABA terminology carefully. In the case of extinction, I have to no longer give reinforcement that I have given in the past. If I have consistently given a child attention when they tantrum, I could put the behavior of tantruming on extinction by no longer giving the child attention when the behavior occurs. I might look away or leave the room. You might have put someone on extinction yourself. If you used to laugh at a colleague’s bad jokes in the past but, now every time he tells his joke, you no longer laugh, hopefully you’ll be hearing less bad jokes.

In this video, the parents are being trained to teach Anton to sit at the table with a stranger. Notice how Mom does not make eye contact with Anton when he starts to tantrum and get out of his seat. She also blocks his ability to get the reinforcing food and does not communicate with him. When Anton does the behavior parents want, he is given positive reinforcement.

 

 

Show/Hide Self-Check

 

Shaping

Shaping is another important ABA principle. With shaping, one is reinforcing successive approximations of a behavior. That is, in the beginning of learning a skill, I might provide reinforcement to the student when they get somewhat close to the behavior I want to see. As time goes on, I’ll only provide that reinforcement when the behavior is very close or exactly the behavior I want to see. A common example of shaping is writing. In the beginning of teaching the letter “A,” I’ll accept any mark the student makes on the paper. I want to have the opportunity to say, “Good job with that letter 'A'.” Later, I’ll expect that it looks more like an “A.” Further down the line, I’ll only give a good job statement when the A is on the line and is the right height. Many people use shaping techniques for their own behaviors related to diet and exercise. We may expect our form to get better in our Rumba class or to shape our eating habits from eating Cheetos to choosing vegetables for a snack.

Here, a young child is learning how to throw a ball using shaping:

Wrap-Up

So, why do we gamble or push that elevator button more than once? Intermittent reinforcement. You’ve hit the jackpot a few times, and that just makes you gamble more in the belief that the jackpot will hit again. For the elevator, you’ve pushed it a several times, and the elevator appeared. It was chance that it arrived when you were pushing, but it makes you believe that the act of pushing brought it faster. At some point in your busy day, take a look around, and see what principles of ABA are in action. They’re everywhere, and they change our behavior!