OLEAD220: Emotional, Social, and Cultural Intelligences and the Implications for Leadership

This lesson takes a deeper dive into why emotional and social intelligence is important by exploring the basic definitions and how both of these intelligences complement each other and combine to provide a comprehensive view of non-cognitive-related capabilities. In contrast to IQ, emotional and social intelligence are shown to drive performance through personal and social competence. Later in this lesson, you get to explore how emotional and social intelligence support leadership effectiveness or how their lack can derail leadership through an exploration of the "Story of Jim" and the emotions that underly Jim’s experience.

To understand how emotional and social intelligence can be developed, we start with an exploration of whether they can be learned. This overview provides supportive information for describing the three most widely used and researched theoretical frameworks discussed in this course and their associated assessments, the skills-based Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i 2.0); the ability-based Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (the MSCEIT); and Goleman, Boyatis, and Hay Group 360-degree feedback skill-based Emotional and Social Competence Inventory (the ESCI).

The lesson will conclude with an analysis of a great or highly effective leader. This analysis will be an opportunity to reflect on what you've learned in this lesson and how you can apply it to your own leadership development.

Lesson Objectives

After completing this lesson, you should be able to

• identify why emotional and social intelligence is important;
• identify the six basic universal expressions of emotions;
• describe whether emotional intelligence and social intelligence can be learned;
• describe major theoretical models for emotional and social intelligence; and
• analyze great leadership.

Readings and Activities

By the end of this lesson, be sure you have completed the readings and activities found in the Lesson 2 Course Schedule.

Table 2.1. Abbreviated Course Map—Part 1: The Introduction to Emotional and Social Intelligence

The Starting Point	Part 1 Introduction and Overview of Emotional and Social Intelligence	Part 2 Development of Emotional Intelligence and Social Intelligence through Mindfulness	Part 3 Measurement of Emotional and Social Intelligence and the Relationship to Leadership	Part 4 Cultural Intelligence and Leadership	Part 5 Development of Emotional, Social, and Cultural Intelligences—Results, Feedback and Plan	The Outcome
☆	➲	➲	➲	➲	➲	★
What determines successful leadership? The VUCA world IQ vs EQ	Theoretical concepts and frameworks The benefits and use of emotional and social intelligence in leadership Comparison to other leadership approaches	The neuroscience behind it The practice of mindfulness	The assessment of emotional intelligence Emotional and social intelligence skills: Self-perception Self-expression Interpersonal Decision-making Stress management Well-being	The theoretical concepts and framework EQ vs CQ The benefits and use of cultural intelligence in leadership The assessment of cultural intelligence	Development of a leadership development plan	Intrapersonal competence Interpersonal competence Star performance Leadership effectiveness Happiness

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Why Is Emotional and Social Intelligence Important?

Basic Definitions

In the first lesson, we discussed some of the basic definitions of emotional intelligence, which we will expand upon.

Emotional intelligence—Reuven Bar-On, the originator of the EQ-i, describes emotional intelligence as "an array of non-cognitive capabilities, competencies, and skills that influence one’s ability to succeed in coping with environmental demands and pressures" (Bar-On, 1997, p. 14). This is one of the definitions that we will use in the course. However, the term emotional intelligence was first coined by Peter Salovey and Jack Mayer, who described it “as the ability to perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional meaning, and to reflectively regulate emotions in ways that promote emotional and intellectual growth" (Mayer et al., 2004, p. 197).

Social intelligence—psychologist Edward Thorndike was the first to coin the term and referred to social intelligence as interpersonal effectiveness (Goleman, 2006). This concept was further conceptualized by Goleman to describe two aspects of social intelligence, (1) the social awareness of perceiving and understanding what others think and feel as well as understanding complex situations and (2) having the social facility to enable effective interactions (Goleman, 2006). In addition, there is a more recent understanding of the neurological basis of social interactions, which we will discuss further.

• In understanding these two types of intelligences, first, it is important to consider them as complementary. For example, one of the competencies of emotional intelligence is emotional self-awareness. As described by Goleman (1998), the capacity for emotional self-awareness is fundamental to developing social intelligence. For example, if you can understand your own emotions and how you respond emotionally to others, you will be better able to understand the emotions and reactions of others when you observe them. 
• Second, some of the conceptualizations of emotional intelligence combine both emotional and social skills. For example, the definition used for the EQ-i 2.0 refers to "a set of emotional and social skills that influence the way we perceive and express ourselves, develop and maintain social relationships, cope with challenges, and use emotional information in effective and meaningful ways" (MHS, 2011, as cited in Stein & Book, 2011, p. 13).This definition combines and incorporates the contributions of emotional and social intelligence.
• Third, there are a number of definitions of emotional intelligence (and social intelligence), but similarities exist among them. They all have something to do with understanding and regulating emotions within us and others, how to interact and build strong relationships with others, how to use emotions to communicate effectively, how to adapt and respond to complex situations/problems, and ultimately how to get work accomplished.

Contributions to Individual and Workplace Success

The reason why emotional and social intelligence is important is that it contributes to individual and workplace success. It drives performance in the workplace. This was the case for an accounting firm where strengths in emotional intelligence added somewhere between 78% and 390% more incremental profit (depending on the specific competency identified) as compared to a focus on analytical reasoning strengths (IQ), which contributed to a 50% increase in incremental profits (Goleman et al., 2002). And as you learned in Lesson 1, the capacity for emotional intelligence can enable you to become a star performer.

EI Versus IQ: A Technical Note

In recent years, we have analyzed data from close to 500 competence models from global companies (including the likes of IBM, Lucent, PepsiCo, British Airways, and Credit Suisse First Boston), as well as from healthcare organizations, academic institutions, government agencies, and even a religious order. To determine which personal capabilities drove outstanding performance within these organizations, we grouped capabilities into three categories: purely technical skills such as accounting or business planning; cognitive abilities such as analytical reasoning; and traits showing emotional intelligence, such as self-awareness and relationship skill.
To create some of the competency models, psychologists typically asked senior managers at the companies to identify the competencies that distinguished the organization's most outstanding leaders, seeking consensus from an "expert panel." Others used a more rigorous method in which analysts asked senior managers to use objective criteria, such as a division's profitability, to distinguish the star performers at senior levels within their organizations from the average ones. Those individuals were then extensively interviewed and tested, and their competencies were methodically compared to identify those that distinguished star performers.
Whichever method was used, this process resulted in lists of ingredients for highly effective leaders. The lists usually ranged in length from a handful to up to fifteen or so competencies, such as initiative, collaboration, and empathy.
Analyzing all the data from hundreds of competence models yielded dramatic results. To be sure, intellect was to some extent a driver of outstanding performance; cognitive skills such as big-picture thinking and long-term vision were particularly important. But calculating the ratio of technical skills and purely cognitive abilities (some of which are surrogates for aspects of intelligence quotient, or IQ) to emotional intelligence in the ingredients that distinguished outstanding leaders revealed that EI-based competencies played an increasingly important role at higher levels of organizations, where differences in technical skills are of negligible importance.
In other words, the higher the rank of those considered star performers, the more EI competencies emerged as the reason for their effectiveness. When the comparison matched star performers against average ones in senior leadership positions, about 85 percent of the difference in their profiles was attributable to emotional intelligence factors rather than to purely cognitive abilities like technical expertise.
One reason has to do with the intellectual hurdles that senior executives jump in obtaining their jobs. It takes at least an IQ of about 110 to 120 to get an advanced degree such as an MBA. There is thus a high selection pressure for IQ in order to enter the executive ranks—and relatively little variation in IQ among those who are in those ranks. On the other hand, there is little or no systematic selection pressure when it comes to emotional intelligence, and so there is a much wider range of variation among executives. That lets superiority in these capabilities count far more than IQ when it comes to star leadership performance.
While the precise ratio of EI to cognitive abilities depends on how each are measured and on the unique demands of a given organization, our rule of thumb holds that EI contributes to 80 to 90 percent of the competencies that distinguish outstanding from average leaders—and sometimes more. To be sure, purely cognitive competencies, such as technical expertise, surface in such studies—but often as threshold abilities, the skills people need simply to do an average job. Although the specifics vary from organization to organization, EI competencies make up the vast majority of the more crucial, distinguishing competencies. Even so, when those specific competencies are weighted for their contribution, the cognitive competencies can sometimes have quite significant input too, depending on the specific competence model involved.
To get an idea of the practical business implications of these competencies, consider an analysis of the partners' contributions to the profits of a large accounting firm. If the partner had significant strengths in the self-management competencies, he or she added 78 percent more incremental profit than did partners without those strengths. Likewise, the added profits for partners with strengths in social skills were 110 percent greater, and those with strengths in the self-management competencies added a whopping 390 percent incremental profit—in this case, $1,465,000 more per year.
By contrast, significant strengths in analytic reasoning abilities added just 50 percent more profit. This, purely cognitive abilities help—but the EI competencies help far more.

Excerpt from Goleman, D., Boyatis, R., & McKee, A. (2002). Appendix A: EI versus IQ—A technical note. In Primal leadership: Realizing the power of emotional intelligence, pp. 249-251. Harvard Business School Press.

The way that emotional intelligence and social intelligence drives performance is through personal and social competence (Goleman, 1998). Personal competence is the ability to understand one’s emotions and manage one’s behaviors, such as the ability of a manager to know when they are anxious and to use strategies to stay calm so that their anxiety does not interfere with their ability to perform their job. And social competence includes the ability to interact with others effectively, empathize with them, and build strong relationships with them that allow the leader to effectively accomplish goals. So, a leader should be able to be sensitive to the concerns of their employees, empathize with them, and address their concerns. For example, an early study of emotional intelligence with physicians showed that physicians who were able to recognize the emotions of their patients had more successful outcomes in treating them than physicians who were not (Friedman & DiMatteo, 1982). More recently, a study by Reiss (2010) showed that a doctor’s display of empathy (an aspect of emotional intelligence) led to improved health outcomes and adherence to treatment programs.

Adding emotional and social intelligence can redefine what it means to be intelligent in the workplace and effective as a leader. As Stein and Book (2011) said, it essentially levels the playing field. So, this helps to also answer the question why some highly intelligent leaders fail while some moderately intelligent leaders become great leaders. Emotional intelligence provides competencies beyond IQ and technical skills needed to be successful as a leader. To explore this further, read the "Story of Jim."

Nadler (2011): The Story of Jim | Videos

The Story of Jim

Jim bumbled his way through his first presentation to the board in his new role as CFO. The CEO, Steve, was very disappointed and surprised by Jim's performance. Jim had forgotten to bring his memory stick to the presentation, but only discovered his oversight as he set up and all the board members were filing into the room. Kicking himself, and obviously thrown off, Jim had to talk about the slides from his handout. His performance reflected this-by his nervousness, disorganization, and lack of poise. Steve, who had supported Jim for the CFO position, exclaimed afterward, "What happened? I was counting on you. Now you are going to have an uphill battle to get back your credibility with this group, if you can."
Dejected and miffed, Jim asked himself the same thing: "What happened?" Half a dozen scenes replayed through his head:

1. On the way to the meeting, Mary, one of his best employees, had told him she was very disappointed in her review and was going to write a rebuttal. He was taken aback at her comments and at the bad timing, as Mary knew he was going to a big meeting. Jim was very short and defensive with her, which was not like him, and he immediately regretted his reaction.
2. He had raced to work this morning, as he had to drop off his daughter, McKensey, at school on the way. She was late getting out of the house because she was looking for one of her shoes.
3. Driving to work, he was thinking about the two people from his department he would have to let go at the end of the day. He still wasn't sure how he was going handle this, and it added to his feeling of being overwhelmed.
4. He had gotten only four and a half hours of sleep the night before, as he was worried about the presentation. In addition, he was anxious about telling his wife about two upcoming business trips he would have to take with the new position. He knew she would be upset as she worried this new position would have him traveling more and she was concerned about the impact on the family.
5. He had left the house in a rush this morning with his mind full of all the tasks ahead of him and "mindlessly" walked right past his memory stick, even though he had placed it by the front door with his notes so he would not forget anything.

All of these emotional events influenced each other, and they impacted Jim's cognitive functioning and his performance. His brain was spent, his emotions were fragile, and his ability to control them and perform at his best was impaired.
Warren Bennis, the founding father of leadership writings and insights, has called for "the field of leadership studies to attend to how we can develop leaders who understand relationships and communication, who can manage themselves and others with wisdom, creativity, and values." He identified resilience as the most important quality of a leader or anyone wanting to lead a healthy and meaningful life.
Jim failed to manage himself or successfully manage others in these interactions. He was like a quarterback who threw two interceptions for touchdowns in the first half of the game and couldn't shake it or recover to perform in the second half. He didn't have the plays or strategies to rebound, recover, stay flexible, and continue to perform at his best. He needed more Emotional Intelligence to prevent this catastrophe in his first big activity in his new role.
All of us have experienced days and moments like this. We need a game plan and strategies to better manage ourselves, and creatively manage others for top performance. This is even more necessary when the stress and rigors of work and life compromise our brain functioning and performance. We need an Emotional Intelligence playbook.

Excerpt from Nadler, R. (2011). Introduction: Why emotional intelligence? (The Story of Jim). In Leading with emotional intelligence, pp. 1-3. McGraw-Hill.

So, with Jim’s story, you get to see what it is like to perform in a way that lacks emotional intelligence. Being more emotionally intelligent may have helped Jim to be more successful by better managing himself and his interactions with others in the workplace as well as coping with the stress of emergent challenges to perform more effectively. Stein et al. (2010) said that emotional intelligence serves as an important catalyst for social and cognitive functioning that can help facilitate leadership effectiveness related to decision-making, empathizing with coworkers and friends, being resilient in emotionally challenging situations, and communicating a vision at work.

The discussion by Cary Cherniss (from minutes 12:07 to 29:19) and Helen Reiss (minutes 32:06 to 51:16) in the video Harvard Alumni Panel: Why Is Interest in Emotional Intelligence Soaring? are the primary focus for the lesson. Watch at least these two video segments—you may review further if you wish.

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Video: Harvard Alumni Panel: Why Is Interest in Emotional Intelligence Soaring?
Segment 1: Cary Cherniss (12:07 to 29:19)

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Video: Harvard Alumni Panel: Why Is Interest in Emotional Intelligence Soaring?
Segment 2: Helen Reiss (32:07 to 51:17)

Emotions

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From "The Story of Jim," you can see that emotions are a frequent part of leadership that can facilitate its effectiveness or derail it. Emotions can impact the way we take in information, process it, behave, and ultimately make decisions. Jim’s feeling of being “rushed” when he left home in the morning spilled over to work, his “defensiveness” impacted how he processed information during his interaction with an employee with a negative response to a poor performance review, Jim’s defensiveness caused further conflict with the employee, he was “overwhelmed” in making a decision about firing two of his employees, Jim’s “nervousness” impacted his presentation performance, and so forth. These emotional events appeared to have accumulated over the course of the day and collectively contributed to Jim’s less than stellar presentation performance at a time when he was trying to impress board members in his new position as CFO.

How to Perceive and Understand Emotions 

As already defined, being emotionally intelligent has to do with the capacity to perceive and respond to emotions that arise within us or are displayed by others. So, familiarizing yourself with what emotions look like and what causes them is a good idea. Trying to become aware of emotions and recognize them is not new. Our modern interpretations of emotions can be traced back to Darwin’s (1872) book The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animal (Darwin, 1872/1965). He described the universality of expressions of basic emotions across cultures and the use of emotional expression as a signaling system to determine possible threats. The ability to read facial expressions can be used as a way of avoiding danger. More recent and extensive research about emotions has been conducted by Ekman (2007), who has furthered Darwin’s research. He describes how to become aware of and recognize six basic emotions: anger, surprise, fear, happiness, sadness, and disgust.

Common Misperceptions

Historically, it has been debated whether emotions are appropriate for the workplace. From our discussion, it is clear that when emotions are used effectively, emotions aren’t just about being emotional or are they just about being “nice.”

Can Emotional Intelligence and Social Intelligence Be Learned?

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This approach views emotional intelligence as a set of skills. As Northouse (2021) describes, skills are “the ability to use one’s knowledge and competencies to accomplish a set of goals or objectives … leadership skills can be acquired, and leaders can be trained to develop them” (p. 56). This places skills in the realm of something that can be learned. So, if individuals lack skills related to emotional intelligence, they can further develop them. If individuals have emotional intelligence and want to improve their capacity, they can enhance it through further skill development. 

Unlike IQ, emotional intelligence increases with age. Stein and Book (2011) said that IQ peaks at age 17, remains stable during adulthood, and then declines in old age. So, IQ is considered to be fixed. Emotional intelligence (or EQ) for both men and women, increases from the teenage years into adulthood. It diminishes slightly somewhere after the 50s. Two studies were conducted by Mental Health Systems (MHS) comprising 4,000 participants from Canada and the United States, one in 1997 and the other a repeated study in 2010, including individuals from different ages, race, ethnicity, social class, and regions. Both supported the findings indicated above. The most significant difference between the two studies was the slight downward shift in emotional intelligence that occurred in the 50s for the 1997 study was delayed until the 70s for the 2010 study. This provides evidence of the relative stability of emotional intelligence that lasts far into our adult years. 

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Can Emotional Intelligence Be Learned?

For ages, people have debated if leaders are born or made. So too goes the debate about emotional intelligence. Are people born with certain levels of empathy, for example, or do they acquire empathy as a result of life's experiences? The answer is both. Scientific inquiry strongly suggests that there is a genetic component to emotional intelligence. Psychological and developmental research indicates that nurture plays a role as well. How much of each perhaps will never be known, but research and practice clearly demonstrate that emotional intelligence can be learned.
One thing is certain: Emotional intelligence increases with age. There is an old-fashioned word for the phenomenon: maturity. Yet even with maturity, some people still need training to enhance their emotional intelligence. Unfortunately, far too many training programs that intend to build leadership skills—including emotional intelligence—are a waste of time and money. The problem is simple: They focus on the wrong part of the brain.
Emotional intelligence is born largely in the neurotransmitters of the brain's limbic system, which governs feelings, impulses, and drives. Research indicates that the limbic system learns best through motivation, extended practice, and feedback. Compare this with the kind of learning that goes on in the neocortex, which governs analytical and technical ability. The neocortex grasps concepts and logic. It is the part of the brain that figures out how to use a computer or make a sales call by reading a book. Not surprisingly—but mistakenly—it is also the part of the brain targeted by most training programs aimed at enhancing emotional intelligence. When such programs take, in effect, a neocortical approach, my research with the Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations has shown they can even have a negative impact on people's job performance.
To enhance emotional intelligence, organizations must refocus their training to include the limbic system. They must help people break old behavioral habits and establish new ones. That not only takes much more time than conventional training programs, it also requires an individualized approach.
Imagine an executive who is thought to be low on empathy by her colleagues. Part of that deficit shows itself as an inability to listen; she interrupts people and doesn't pay close attention to what they're saying. To fix the problem, the executive needs to be motivated to change, and then she needs practice and feedback from others in the company. A colleague or coach could be tapped to let the executive know when she has been observed failing to listen. She would then have to replay the incident and give a better response; that is, demonstrate her ability to absorb what others are saying. And the executive could be directed to observe certain executives who listen well and to mimic their behavior.
With persistence and practice, such a process can lead to lasting results. I know one Wall Street executive who sought to improve his empathy—specifically his ability to read people's reactions and see their perspectives. Before beginning his quest, the executive's subordinates were terrified of working with him. People even went so far as to hide bad news from him. Naturally, he was shocked when finally confronted with these facts. He went home and told his family—but they only confirmed what he had heard at work. When their opinions on any given subject did not mesh with his, they, too, were frightened of him.
Enlisting the help of a coach, the executive went to work to heighten his empathy through practice and feedback. His first step was to take a vacation to a foreign country where he did not speak the language. While there, he monitored his reactions to the unfamiliar and his openness to people who were different from him. When he returned home, humbled by his week abroad, the executive asked his coach to shadow him for parts of the day, several times a week, to critique how he treated people with new or different perspectives. At the same time, he consciously used on-the-job interactions as opportunities to practice "hearing" ideas that differed from his. Finally, the executive had himself videotaped in meetings and asked those who worked for and with him to critique his ability to acknowledge and understand the feelings of others. It took several months, but the executive's emotional intelligence did ultimately rise, and the improvement was reflected in his overall performance on the job.
It's important to emphasize that building one's emotional intelligence cannot—and will not—happen without sincere desire and concerted effort. A brief seminar won't help; nor can one buy a how-to manual. It is much harder to learn to empathize—to internalize empathy as a natural response to people—than it is to become adept at regression analysis. But it can be done. "Nothing great was ever achieved without enthusiasm," wrote Ralph Waldo Emerson. If your goal is to become a real leader, these words can serve as a guidepost in your efforts to develop high emotional intelligence.

Excerpt from Goleman, D. (2004). Can emotional intelligence be learned? In What makes a leader? (pp. 86-87). Harvard Business Review, 82(1), 82-91.

Learning emotional intelligence takes ongoing training, effort, and practice. Training allows the identification of the leader's strengths and weaknesses as related to individual performance and organizational effectiveness and the subsequent development of a plan for further skills development. The absence of emotional intelligence, as we see in "The Story of Jim," can lead to some level of leadership failure or possible career derailment.

Theoretical Frameworks Explored

Table 2.2 is a comparison of the three theoretical frameworks explored.

Table 2.2. Ability and Mixed Models of Emotional Intelligence

Ability Model: Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso	Mixed Model: Goleman et al.	Mixed Model: Bar-On
Perceiving emotions	Self-awareness   Emotional awareness	Self-perception   Emotional self-awareness   Self-regard   Self-actualization Self-expression   Emotional expression   Independence   Assertiveness Interpersonal   Interpersonal relationships   Empathy   Social responsibility Decision Making   Impulse control   Reality testing   Problem solving Stress Management   Flexibility   Stress tolerance   Optimism
Managing emotions	Self-management   Emotional self-control   Positive outlook   Achievement orientation   Adaptability	Adaptability   Reality testing   Flexibility   Problem solving
Facilitating thoughts	Social awareness   Empathy   Organizational awareness	Stress management   Stress tolerance   Impulse control
Understanding emotions	Relationship management   Influence   Coach and mentor   Conflict management   Inspirational leadership   Teamwork	Interpersonal   Empathy   Social responsibility   Interpersonal relationship General mood   Optimism   Happiness

Theoretical Frameworks Explored

Three of the most well-known models and widely researched emotional intelligence theoretical frameworks and assessments will be explored in this section—Reuven Bar-On’s skills-based Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i 2.0), followed by the ability-based assessment called the Mayer, Salovey, the Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (the MSCEIT), and Goleman, Boyatis, and Hay Group’s 360-degree skill-based assessment called the Emotional and Social Competence Inventory (the ESCI). Each provides a unique framework for studying emotional intelligence, but they also share some basic concepts about emotional intelligence. For example, the EQ-i 2.0 and the ESCI models integrate both the emotional and social intelligence components to their theoretical framework and assessment. This is sometimes referred to as a mixed model approach.

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+ Figure 2.4 Text Description

The EQ-i 2.0 model of emotional intelligence consists of five realms, each with associated scales, plus an additional scale for happiness/well-being:

• self-perception
  • emotional self-awareness
  • self-regard
  • self-actualization
• self-expression
  • emotional expression
  • independence
  • assertiveness
• interpersonal
  • interpersonal relationships
  • empathy
  • social responsibility
• decision making
  • impulse control
  • reality testing
  • problem solving
• stress management
  • flexibility
  • stress tolerance
  • optimism

Surrounding these realms and associated scales is well-being, performance, and emotional and social functioning.

The Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i 2.0)

As previously discussed, the Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i) was first developed by Bar-On in 1985, but the most recent version of the assessment is the EQ-i 2.0. The purpose of this measure of emotional intelligence is to predict performance and determine resiliency.

This model of emotional intelligence consists of five general realms associated with 15 scales, along with one additional separate scale (Stein & Book, 2011, pp. 21–24).

The following is a brief overview of the five realms:

• Self-Perception: knowing and managing yourself
• Self-Expression: the way that you face the world
• Interpersonal: interacting and getting along with others; your “people skills”
• Decision Making: using emotions to solve problems and make optimal decisions
• Stress Management: being flexible, tolerating stress, and controlling impulses

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The 15 scales associated with the five realms as well as the additional scale for happiness are described in Tables 2.3–2.8.

Table 2.3. EQ-i 2.0 Scale: Self-Perception

EQ-i 2.0 Scale: Self-Perception	EI Competency
Emotional Self-Awareness	Ability to be aware of and understand one's feelings and their impact
Self-Regard	Ability to respect and accept one's strengths and weaknesses
Self-Actualization	Ability to improve oneself and pursue meaningful objectives

Table 2.4. EQ-i 2.0 Scale: Self-Expression

EQ-i 2.0 Scale: Self-Expression	EI Competency
Emotional Expression	Ability to express one's feelings verbally and nonverbally
Independence	Ability to be self-directed and free of emotional dependency on others
Assertiveness	Ability to express feelings, beliefs, and thoughts in a nondestructive way

Table 2.5. EQ-i 2.0 Scale: Interpersonal

EQ-i 2.0 Scale: Interpersonal	EI Competency
Interpersonal Relationships	Ability to develop and maintain mutually satisfying relationships
Empathy	Ability to recognize, understand, and appreciate the feelings of others
Social Responsibility	Ability to contribute to society, one's social group, and to the welfare of others

Table 2.6. EQ-i 2.0 Scale: Decision Making

EQ-i 2.0 Scale: Decision Making	EI Competency
Impulse Control	Ability to resist or delay an impulse, drive, or temptation to act
Reality Testing	Ability to remain objective by seeing things as they really are
Problem Solving	Ability to solve problems where emotions are involved using emotions

Table 2.7. EQ-i 2.0 Scale: Stress Management

EQ-i 2.0 Scale: Stress Management	EI Competency
Flexibility	Ability to adapt one's feelings, thinking, and behavior to change
Stress Tolerance	Ability to effectively cope with stressful or difficult situations
Optimism	Ability to remain hopeful and resilient, despite setbacks

Table 2.8. EQ-i 2.0 Additional Scale: Happiness (Well-Being)

EQ-i 2.0 Scale: Happiness	EI Competency
Happiness	Ability to feel satisfied with oneself, others, and life in general

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There are two forms of assessment. One is the EQ-i 2.0, which is the self-report form. The other is the EQ 360, which is a multiple-rater assessment that allows feedback from others, such as supervisors and coworkers. 

The EQ-i 2.0 approach frames emotional intelligence in terms of “short-term, tactical, ‘dynamic’ skills that can be brought into play as the situation warrants” (Stein & Book, 2011, p. 20). The theoretical framework, the assessment, and their use will be the primary focus of this course.

Theoretical Frameworks Explored: The Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT)

+ Figure 2.5. Text Description

The Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) model flows between experiential factors—perceiving emotions and facilitating thought—and strategic factors—understanding emotions and managing emotions.

This model and assessment were first developed by psychologists Peter Salovey from Yale University and John Mayer from the University of New Hampshire. They later partnered with David Caruso to develop the MSCEIT. This model consists of four areas or branches (Stein & Book, 2011, p. 295):

• Perceiving Emotions: the ability to read other people’s emotions 
• Facilitating Thought: using emotions to facilitate how you feel and think as well as using emotions to focus and guide problem-solving
• Understanding Emotions: to help predict the future by knowing the source of your emotions and why you feel a certain way to be able to better deal with it
• Managing Emotions: to better get along with others, solve problems, make sound judgements, and manage behavior effectively

Theoretical Frameworks Explored: The Emotional and Social Competence Inventory (ESCI)

The theoretical framework that supports the Emotional and Social Competency Inventory (originally called the Emotional Competency Inventory, or ECI) combines Daniel Goleman’s work on emotional intelligence with the work of Richard Boyatis and the Hay Group on managerial competencies. The model extends the one Goleman (1998) developed in Working with Emotional Intelligence and informs it with research to further develop core emotional intelligence competencies. The current version of the inventory is a 360-degree feedback survey that provides employee or leader perceptions and feedback from other raters regarding 12 competencies that help to differentiate average from star performers (Hay Group, 2011). 

+ Figure 2.6. Text Description

The model for the Emotional and Social Competency Inventory (ESCI) consists of four quadrants of emotional intelligence that impact performance:

• self-awareness: awareness of self
• social awareness: awareness of others
• self-management: actions of self
• relationship management: actions of others

The four basic emotional and social domains and the associated competencies are as follows.

Self-Awareness

Recognizing and understanding your emotions

• Emotional awareness—being aware of how your emotional experience impacts your performance

Self-Management

Managing your emotions

• Emotional self-control—managing emotional and impulses under pressure effectively
• Achievement orientation—striving towards standards of excellence
• Positive outlook—optimistic view of individuals, events, and situations, being persistent and proactive despite obstacles and setbacks
• Adaptability—being flexible in handling complex challenges and change

Social Awareness

Recognizing and understanding others’ emotions

• Empathy—awareness of the feelings, needs, perspectives and concerns of others
• Organizational awareness—understanding the subtle and complex interactions in organizations, including emotional undercurrents as well as the use of power, influence, and networks in organizational dynamics

Relationship Management

Applying your emotional understanding in your interactions with others

• Influence—persuading others 
• Coach and mentor—developing others by providing support and feedback
• Conflict management—negotiating, resolving, and finding effective solutions to disputes or disagreements
• Inspirational leadership—inspiring and guiding individuals and groups to achieve organizational goals. 
• Teamwork—effectively pursuing goals enhanced by creating group synergy

Goleman’s theoretical framework has focused extensively on work performance and leadership as well as how emotional intelligence could be learned. As such, we will refer to this model, although it is slightly different than the EQ-i 2.0 model and assessment used in the course.

This lesson explored how some of the major contributors to the field define the basic concepts of emotional and social intelligence and their related competencies. These concepts were framed in terms of their complementary nature, how the theoretical conceptualizations combine both terms, and the similarities that exist among various definitions. This exploration was fundamental to determining why emotional and social intelligence is important and subsequently what these competencies contribute to individual and workplace success. The importance of emotional and social intelligence was further seen in "The Story of Jim" and research presented by the Harvard alumni panel.

As central to emotional and social intelligence, how to perceive and understand emotions as well as whether these capabilities can be learned were explored. In addition, the most well-known and widely researched emotional intelligence theoretical frameworks and assessments were explored: the Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i 2.0); the Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (the MSCEIT); and Goleman, Boyatis, and Hay Group’s Emotional and Social Competence Inventory (the ESCI).    

The lesson will end on the following pages with the chance for you to reflect and apply lesson concepts to your own personal experience of “great” leadership and how the traits, behaviors, or competencies identified relate to your leadership success.