Characteristics of Motivation

We will now address several characteristics of motivation that will give us a more complete picture of the nature of this complex concept.

1. Motivation is a hypothetical construct (Kanfer, 1990).

   What this means is that we cannot see or feel motivation directly because it is an internal state that exists within the individual. Some of the variables that I/O psychologists study are objective, quantifiable, and tangible (the number of absences, turnover, how many reports an employee wrote), but there are also constructs that are not as clear-cut in terms of measurement (e.g., motivation, satisfaction, commitment). To use an analogy, motivation is a bit like gravity in that we cannot see or feel it, but its effects are clear (e.g., jumping over a cliff) (Jex & Britt, 2008).

2. Motivation is an inferred state.

   This point is related to the first one. Because motivation is a hypothetical construct, it cannot be directly measured, but its existence is inferred from effects, by-products, and behaviors that can be observed. Essentially, what this means is that we can never measure motivation perfectly. Because it is a construct that has to be assessed indirectly from what we see, there will always be some error in our measurement attempts.

   One of the complexities in measuring motivation is that motives may appear in disguised form. In addition, any single act may express several different motives. The movie Chariots of Fire portrays the lives of Eric Liddell and Harold Abrahams. These two men were members of the British track team, exhibited a strong drive to excel, and each won a gold medal in the 1924 Olympics. However, their motives were quite different. Liddell felt God's pleasure when he ran and wanted to serve and glorify God through his physical ability. On the other hand, Abrahams competed to prove his self-worth and overcome anti-Semitism. This example demonstrates that similar behavior may reflect vastly different motives. However, similar motives may also be expressed in different behavior. The need to achieve may be directed toward high academic performance, quickly climbing the corporate ladder, or winning sporting events. The topic of motivation is complex, indeed!

   Southwest Airlines, Chic-fil-A, and AptarGroup are known to have highly motivated workforces. How is this known? As highlighted by McNerney (1996) in his descriptions of the three companies, high motivation- which cannot be directly observed- is inferred from low turnover, high employee productivity, and profitability- which can all be directly measured. While these may be perceived as reasonable indicators, it should be noted that they are not perfect indicators of motivation. For example, with regard to turnover, employees may not be motivated but may still remain on the job because the economy is down and they may not be able to find comparable jobs elsewhere. Likewise, employees may be extremely motivated but have to leave their jobs because their spouses have been transferred. Therefore, turnover is an imperfect indicator of motivation. Similarly, in spite of highly motivated employees who exert a great deal of effort in their jobs, a company may not turn a profit in a given year because of a downturn in the economy or a ruthless competitor. Again, corporate profitability is also an imperfect indicator of motivation. According to the definition of motivation discussed above, effort expenditure and persistence on a task would more closely assess motivation, but our measurement of these behaviors would also be imperfect.

3. Motivation is multifaceted.

   Motivation encompasses cognition, affect, behavior, as well as situational influences. First, motivation involves cognition or aspects like thinking, judging, interpreting, understanding, and perceiving. For example, motivational processes often involve setting goals, coming up with strategies to meet those goals, and comparing where you are to where you want to be. Many of the theories of motivation that we will examine will emphasize cognition. Second, motivation also involves affect (emotion, feelings). There is the sense of loving what you do and being excited about your work when motivation is high and feeling disappointment and frustration when motivation is low. Motivation also encompasses conation or behavior. As we discussed above, motivation is evidenced by observable behaviors- willing, striving, effort expenditure. Lastly, situational influences such as the people around you, the type of work space, or the weather can impact one's motivation.

4. Motives are dynamic and often conflicting.

   The workplace would be much more predictable if motives did not change over time, but this is not the case. What motivates an employee today may not have the same effect on that employee three months down the road or next year. Daycare benefits and time off may be more motivating to younger employees, but retirement benefits and a sense of accomplishment in one's work may be more motivating to older employees. When the economy changes for the worse, a job that was perceived as dissatisfying and unmotivating may suddenly become valued in the eyes of a worker.

   In addition, individuals may have several different motives operating at once, and sometimes, these motives may conflict. A student may want to enjoy their favorite TV program, but may also want to study in order to achieve a better grade on the next test. Employees may be motivated to spend more time with their children, but may also be motivated to take work home in order to please the boss. Which motive will win out? The answer to this question depends on a number of different factors, which we will address in this course.

5. There are individual differences in motivation.

   Not only are there within-person differences in motivation (a particular individual may experience conflicting motives or motives that change over time), but there are also between-person differences in motivation (on any given task, some individuals will be lazy and others ambitious). What motivates one person is not what motivates another person. One worker may enjoy working in groups, whereas another worker may prefer to work individually. One employee may be strongly motivated by recognition and praise, whereas another employee may be strongly motivated by cash bonuses. As you can imagine, these differences make a manager's job quite challenging and speak to the need to treat employees individually as opposed to using a "one motivational plan will work for all" approach.